tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30801789027215887112024-03-13T19:43:54.751-07:00Philosophy in thoughtUnknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger16125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3080178902721588711.post-90953239910716333432013-08-01T05:26:00.000-07:002013-08-01T05:29:50.830-07:00The meaning and concept of philosophy in Islam- Seyyed Hossein Nasr<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDdVDgkMaEBlZ5FGcIxnlhjnu3nDjMkpI5ON5qsCvSZIL3R9HC2pzpkRlckAekjc8PcDDlvE93wVVAm28yf1QcYqbhi9p2t0kC4Zgpdctbm-V4BGV9-fVvGgOzUyGIAlNDgQXkwrAauZA/s1600/seyyed-hossein-nasr.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="244" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDdVDgkMaEBlZ5FGcIxnlhjnu3nDjMkpI5ON5qsCvSZIL3R9HC2pzpkRlckAekjc8PcDDlvE93wVVAm28yf1QcYqbhi9p2t0kC4Zgpdctbm-V4BGV9-fVvGgOzUyGIAlNDgQXkwrAauZA/s320/seyyed-hossein-nasr.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In the light of the Qur'an and <i>Hadith
</i>in both of which the term <i>hikmah </i>has been used,<sup>1</sup> Muslim
authorities belonging to different schools of thought have sought over the ages
to define the meaning of <i>hikmah </i>as well as <i>falsafah, </i>a term which
entered Arabic through the Greek translations of the second/eighth and
third/ninth centuries. On the one hand what is called philosophy in English
must be sought in the context of Islamic civilization not only in the various
schools of Islamic philosophy but also in schools bearing other names,
especially <i>kalam, ma`rifah, usul al-fiqh </i>as well as <i>the awa'il </i>sciences,
not to speak of such subjects as grammar and history which developed particular
branches of philosophy. On the other hand each school of thought sought to
define what is meant <i>by hikmah </i>or <i>falsafah </i>according to its own
perspective and this question has remained an important concern of various
schools of Islamic thought especially as far as the schools of Islamic
philosophy are concerned.</span></span></div>
<a name='more'></a><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">During Islamic history, the terms used
for Islamic philosophy as well as the debates between the philosophers, the
theologians and sometimes the Sufis as to the meaning of these terms varied to
some extent from one period to another but not completely. <i>Hikmah </i>and <i>falsafah
</i>continued to be used while such terms as <i>al-hikmat al-ilahiyyah </i>and <i>alhikmat
al-muta`aliyah </i>gained new meaning and usage in later centuries of Islamic
history, especially in the school of Mulla Sadra. The term over which there was
the greatest debate was <i>hikmah, </i>which was claimed by the Sufis and <i>mutakallimun
as </i>well as the philosophers, <i>all </i>appealing to such <i>Hadith as </i>"The
acquisition of <i>hikmah is </i>incumbent upon you and the good resides in <i>hikmah.</i>"<sup>2</sup><i>
</i>Some Sufis such as Tirmidhi were called <i>hakim </i>and Ibn Arabi refers
to the wisdom which has been unveiled through each manifestation of the <i>logos
as hikmah as </i>seen in the very title of his masterpiece <i>Fusus al-hikam,</i><sup>3</sup><i>
</i>while many <i>mutakallimun </i>such<i> </i>as Fakhr al-Din al-Razi claimed
that <i>kalam </i>and not <i>falsafah </i>was <i>hikmah</i>,<sup>4</sup><i> </i>Ibn
Khaldun confirming this view in calling the later <i>kalam (kalam
al-muta'akhkhirin) </i>philosophy or <i>hikmah</i>.<sup>5</sup></span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .3in;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Our discussion in
this chapter is concerned, however, primarily with the Islamic philosophers’
understanding of the definition and meaning of the concept of philosophy and
the terms <i>hikmah </i>and <i>falsafah</i>.<sup>6</sup><i> </i>This
understanding includes of course what the Greeks had comprehended by the term <i>philosophia
</i>and many of the definitions from Greek sources which were to find their way
into Arabic sometimes with only slight modifications. Some of the definitions
of Greek origin most common among Islamic philosophers are as follows:<sup>7</sup></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
</span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Philosophy <i>(al
falsafah) </i>is the knowledge of all existing things <i>qua </i>existents <i>(ashya'
al-maujudah bi ma hiya maujudah</i>).<sup>8</sup> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
</span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Philosophy is
knowledge of divine and human matters. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
</span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Philosophy is taking
refuge in death, that is, love of death. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
</span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Philosophy is
becoming God-like to the extent of human ability. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
</span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">It [philosophy] is
the art <i>(sind'ah) </i>of arts and the science <i>(ilm) </i>of<i> </i>sciences.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 7.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
</span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Philosophy is
predilection for <i>hikmah.</i></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
Islamic philosophers meditated upon these definitions of<i> falsafah </i>which
they inherited from ancient sources and which they identified with the Qur'anic
term <i>hikmah </i>believing the origin of <i>hikmah </i>to be divine. The first
of the Islamic philosophers, Abu Ya`qub al-Kindi wrote in his <i>On First
Philosophy, </i>“Philosophy is the knowledge of the reality of things within
people's possibility, because the philosopher's end in theoretical knowledge is
to gain truth and in practical knowledge to behave in accordance with truth.”<sup>9</sup>
Al-Farabi, while accepting this definition, added the distinction between
philosophy based on certainty <i>(al-yaqiniyyah) </i>hence demonstration and
philosophy based on opinion <i>(al-maznunah</i>),<sup>10</sup> hence dialectic
and sophistry, and insisted that philosophy was the mother of the sciences and
dealt with everything that exists.<sup>11</sup></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><sup> </sup> </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ibn
Sina again accepted these earlier definitions while making certain precisions
of his own. In his <i>`Uyun al-hikmah </i>he says “<i>Al-hikmah </i>[which he
uses as being the same as philosophy] is the perfection of the human soul
through conceptualization <i>[tasawwur</i>] of things and judgment <i>[tasdiq] </i>of
theoretical and practical realities to the measure of human ability."<sup>12</sup>
But, he went further in later life to distinguish between Peripatetic
philosophy and what he called "Oriental philosophy" <i>(al-hikmat
almashriqi’yah) </i>which was not based on ratiocination alone but included
realized knowledge and which set the stage for the <i>hikmat al-ishraq </i>of
Suhrawardi.<sup>13</sup> Ibn Sina’s foremost student Bahmanyar meanwhile
identified <i>falsafah </i>closely with the study of existents as Ibn Sina had
done in his Peripatetic works such as the <i>Shifa’ </i>repeating the
Aristotelian dictum that philosophy is the study of<i> </i>existents <i>qua </i>existents.
Bahmanyar wrote in the introduction to his <i>Tahlil, </i>"The aim of<i> </i>the
philosophical sciences is knowledge of existents." <sup>14</sup></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Isma'ili and
Hermetico-Pythagorean thought, which paralleled in development the better-known
Peripatetic philosophy but with a different philosophical perspective,
nevertheless gave definitions of<i> </i>philosophy not far removed from those
of<i> </i>the Peripatetics, emphasizing perhaps even more the relation between
the theoretical aspect of<i> </i>philosophy and its practical dimension,
between thinking philosophically and leading a virtuous life. This nexus, which
is to be seen in all schools of<i> </i>earlier Islamic philosophy, became even
more evident from Suhrawardi onward and the <i>hakim </i>came to be seen
throughout Islamic society not as someone who could only discuss mental
concepts in a clever manner but as one who also lived according to the wisdom
which he knew theoretically. The modern Western idea of the philosopher never
developed in the Islamic world and the ideal stated by the Ikhwan al-Safa' who
lived in the fourth/ tenth century and who were contemporary with Ibn Sina was
to echo ever more loudly over the ages wherever Islamic philosophy was
cultivated. The Ikhwan wrote, "The beginning of philosophy <i>(falsafah) </i>is
the love of<i> </i>the sciences, its middle knowledge of the realities of
existents to the measure of<i> </i>human ability and its end words and deeds in
accordance with knowledge."<sup>15</sup></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">With Suhrawardi we
enter not only a new period but also another realm of<i> </i>Islamic
philosophy. The founder of a new intellectual perspective in Islam, Suhrawardi
used the term <i>hikmat al-ishraq </i>rather than <i>falsafat al-ishraq </i>for
both the title of<i> </i>his philosophical masterpiece and the school which he
inaugurated. The ardent student of<i> </i>Suhrawardi and the translator of <i>Hikmat
al-ishraq </i>into French, Henry Corbin, employed the term <i>theosophie </i>rather
than philosophy to translate into French the term <i>hikmah as </i>understood
by Suhrawardi and later sages such as Mulla Sadra, and we have also rendered <i>al-hikmat
al-muta aliyah </i>of Mulla Sadra into English as "transcendent
theosophy"t<sup>6</sup> and have sympathy for Corbin's translation of<i> </i>the
term. There is of course the partly justified argument that in recent times the
term "theosophy" has gained pejorative connotations in European
languages, especially English, and has become associated with occultism and
pseudo-esoterism. And yet the term </span><i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">philosophy </span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">also suffers from
limitations imposed upon it by those who have practised it during the past few
centuries. If Hobbes, Hume and Ayer are philosophers, then those whom
Suhrawardi calls <i>hukama' </i>are not philosophers and vice versa. The
narrowing of the meaning of philosophy, the divorce between philosophy and
spiritual practice in the West and especially the reduction of philosophy to
either rationalism or .empiricism necessitate making a distinction between the
meaning given to <i>hikmah </i>by a Suhrawardi or Mulla Sadra and the purely
mental activity called philosophy in certain circles in<sup>*</sup> the West
today. The use of the term <i>theosophy </i>to render this later understanding
of the term <i>hikmah is </i>based on the older and time-honoured meaning of
this term in European intellectual history as associated with such figures as
Jakob Bohme and not as the term became used in the late thirteenth/nineteenth
century by some British occultists. Be that as it may, it is important to
emphasize the understanding that Suhrawardi and all later Islamic philosophers
have of <i>hikmah </i>as primarily <i>al-hikmat al-ildhiyyah </i>(literally
divine wisdom or <i>theosophia) </i>which must be realized within one's whole
being and not only mentally. Suhrawardi saw this <i>hikmah as </i>being present
also in ancient Greece before the advent of Aristotelian rationalism and
identifies <i>hikmah </i>with coming out of one's body and ascending to the
world of lights, as did Plato.<sup>17</sup> Similar ideas are to be found
throughout his works, and he insisted that the highest level of <i>hikmah </i>requires
both the perfection of the theoretical faculty and the purification of the
soul.'<sup>8</sup></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">With Mulla Sadra, one
finds not only a synthesis of various earlier schools of Islamic thought but
also a synthesis of the earlier views concerning the meaning of the term and
concept philosophy. At the beginning of the Asfar he writes, repeating verbatim
and summarizing some of the earlier definitions, <i>"falsafah is </i>the
perfecting of the human soul to the extent of human ability through the
knowledge of the essential reality of things as they are in themselves and
through judgment concerning their existence established upon demonstration and
not derived from opinion or through imitation". <sup>19 </sup>And in <i>al-Shawdhid
al-rububiyyah </i>he adds, "[through <i>bikmah] </i>man becomes an
intelligible world resembling the objective world and similar to the order of
universal existence" 2°</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In the first book of the
<i>Air </i>dealing with being, Mulla Sadra discusses extensively the various
definitions of <i>hikmah, </i>emphasizing not only theoretical knowledge and
"becoming an intelligible world reflecting the objective intelligible
world" but also detachment from passions and purification of the soul from
its material defilements or what the Islamic philosophers call <i>tajarrud </i>or
catharsis.<sup>21</sup> Mull! Sadra accepts the meaning of <i>hikmah as </i>understood
by Suhrawardi and then expands the meaning of <i>falsafah </i>to include the
dimension of illumination and realization implied by the <i>ishrdgi </i>and
also Sufi understanding of the term. For him as for his contemporaries, as well
as most of his successors, <i>falsafah </i>or philosophy was seen as the
supreme science of ultimately divine origin, derived from "the niche of
prophecy" and the <i>hukama' as </i>the most perfect of human beings
standing in rank only below the prophets and Imams.<sup>22</sup></span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: .05in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .35in;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This conception of
philosophy as dealing with the discovering of the truth concerning the nature
of things and combining mental knowledge with the purification and perfection
of one's being has lasted to this day wherever the tradition of Islamic
philosophy has continued and is in fact embodied in the very being of the most
eminent representatives of the Islamic philosophical tradition to this day.
Such fourteenth/twentiethcentury masters as Mirth Ahmad Ashtiyani, the author
of <i>Ndmayi rahbardn-i dmuzish-i kitdb-i takwin </i>("Treatise of the
Guides to the Teaching of the Book of Creation"); Sayyid Muhammad Kazim
`Ansar, author of many treatises including <i>Wahdat al-wujud </i>("The
Transcendent Unity of Being"); Mahdi Ilahi Qumsha'i, author of <i>Hikmat-i
ildhi khwdss wa amm </i>("Philosophy/Theosophy - General and
Particular") and Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i, author of
numerous treatises especially <i>Usul--i falsafa -yi ri dlixm </i>("Principles
of the Philosophy of Realism") all wrote of the definition of philosophy
along lines mentioned above and lived accordingly. Both their works and their
lives were testimony not only to over a millennium of concern by Islamic
philosophers as to the meaning of the concept and the term philosophy but also
to the significance of the Islamic definition of philosophy as that reality
which transforms both the mind and the soul and which is ultimately never
separated from spiritual purity and ultimately sanctity that the .very term <i>hikmah
</i>implies in the Islamic context.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">NOTES</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1 For the use of <i>hikmah </i>in the
Qur'an and <i>Hadith </i>see S. H. Nasr, "The Qur'an and <i>,Hadith </i>as
Source and Inspiration of Islamic Philosophy", Chapter 2 below.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2<i> Alayka bilhikmah fa inna'l--khayr
f 1-hikmah.</i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 13.5pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3 See Muhyi al-Din Ibn Arabi, <i>The
Wisdom </i>of<i> the Prophets, </i>trans. T. Burckhardt, trans. from French A.
Culme-Seymour (Salisbury, 1975), pp. 1-3 of Burckhardt's introduction; and M.
Chodkiewicz, <i>Seal </i>of<i> the Saints - Prophethood and Sainthood in the
Doctrine </i>of<i> Ibn Arabi, </i>trans. S. L. Sherrard (Cambridge, 1993):
47-8.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4 See S. H. Nasr, "Fakhr al-Din
Razi", in M. M. Sharif (ed.), <i>A History </i>of<i> Muslim Philosophy, 1 </i>(Wiesbaden,
1963): 645-8.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5 'Abd al-Razzaq
Lahiji, the eleventh/seventeenth-century student of Mulla Sadra who was however
more of a theologian than a philosopher, writes in his <i>kalami </i>text <i>Gawhar-murdd,
</i>"Since it has become known that in acquiring the divine sciences and
other intellectual matters the intellect has complete independence, and does
not need to rely in these matters upon the <i>Shari `ah </i>and the proof of
certain principles concerning the essence of beings in such a way as to be in
accord with the objective world through intellectual demonstrations and
reasoning ... the path of the <i>hukamd, </i>the science acquired through this
means is called in the vocabulary of scholars <i>hikmah. </i>And of necessity
it will be in accord with the true <i>Shari `ah </i>for the truth of the <i>Shari`ah
is </i>realized objectively through intellectual demonstration" <i>(Gawhar-murad
</i>(Tehran, 1377): 17-18). Although speaking as a theologian, Lahiji is
admitting in this text that <i>hikmab </i>should be used for the intellectual
activity of the philosophers and not the <i>mutakallimun, </i>demonstrating the
shift in position in the understanding of this term since the time of Fakhr
al-Din al-Razi. There is considerable secondary material on this subject in Arabic
as well as in European languages. See Abd al-Halim Maimed, <i>al- Tafkir al
fahaft f:l islAm </i>(Cairo, 1964): 163-71; Mustafa Abd al-Raziq, <i>Tamhid
li-ta'rikh al falsafat alislamiyyah </i>(Cairo, 1959), chapter 3: 48ff.; G. C.
Anawati, "Philosophie medievale en terre d'Islam", <i>Melanges de
l'Institut Dominicain d'Etudes Orientales du Caire, </i>5 (1958): 175-236; and
S. H. Nasr, "The Meaning and Role of 'Philosophy' in Islam", <i>Studia
Islamica, </i>37 (1973): 57-80. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7. See Christel Hein,
<i>Definition and Einleitung der Philosophie - Von der spdtantiken
Einleitungsliteratur zur arabischen Enzyklopddie </i>(Bern and New York, 1985):
86.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8 This is repeated with only a small
alteration by al-Farabi in his <i>al Jam' bayn ra ay al-hakimayn. </i>According
to Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah, al-Farabi even wrote a treatise entitled <i>Concerning
the Word Philosophy' (Kalam fr ism al falsafah) </i>although some have doubted
that this was an independent work. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 13.5pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9. See S. Strouma, AlFarabi and
Maimonides on the Christian Philosophical Tradition", <i>Der Islam, </i>68(2)
(1991): <i>264; </i>and <i>Aristoteles - Werk and Wirkung, </i>2, ed. J.
Weisner (Berlin, 1987). Quoted in Ahmed Fouad El-Ehwany, "Al-Kindi",
in M. M. Sharif (ed.), <i>A History </i>of<i> Muslim Philosophy, 1 </i>(1963):
424.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 13.5pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10 <i>Kitab al-Huruf, </i>ed. M. Mahdi
(Beirut, 1969): 153-7.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 13.5pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">11<i> KitAb jam' bayn ra ay al-hakimayn
</i>(Hyderabad, 1968): 36-7.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 13.5pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">12 <i>Fontes sapientiae (Uyun
al-bikmah), </i>ed. Abdurrahman Badawi </span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(Cairo, 1954):</span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">16.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 13.5pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">13 On Ibn Sina's "Oriental
philosophy" see Chapter 17 below.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 13.5pt; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">14<i> Kitab al-Ta{xil </i>ed. M.
Mutahhari (Tehran, 1970): 3.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 13.5pt; margin-right: .5in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">15 <i>Rasail </i>1 (Cairo, 1928): 23.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 13.5pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">16 See S. H. Nasr, <i>The Transcendent
Theosophy </i>of<i> Sadr al-Din Shirdzi </i>(Tehran, 1977).</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 13.5pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">17 See his <i>Tawihdi, </i>in H. Corbin
(ed.) <i>Oeuvres philosophiques et</i></span><i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> mystiques, 1 </span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(Tehran, 1976): 112-13.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 13.5pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">18 See S. H. Nasr, <i>Three Muslim
Sages </i>(Delmar, 1975): 63-4.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 13.5pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">19 <i>Al Asfar al-arba ah, </i>ed.
Allamah Tabataba i (Tehran, 1967): 20.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 13.5pt; margin-right: .05in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">20 Mulla Sadra, <i>al-ShawAhid
al-rububiyyah, </i>ed. S. J. Ashtiyani (Mashhad, 1967).</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 13.5pt; margin-right: .05in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">21 See the Introduction of the <i>Asfar.</i></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 13.5pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">22 Muhammad Khwajawi, <i>Lawami'
al-arifrn </i>(Tehran, 1987): 18ff., where many quotations from the different
works of Mulla Sadra on the relation between authentic <i>hikmah </i>and
revelation and the spiritual power and sanctity of the Imams <i>(waldyah) </i>are
cited.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 13.5pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 13.5pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -13.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>Source</b>: </span><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/nasr-ip1.htm" target="_blank">http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/nasr-ip1.htm</a></div>
<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3080178902721588711.post-4725571452747629832013-05-07T00:42:00.000-07:002013-05-07T00:45:37.246-07:00Mishkât Al-Anwar: AL-GHAZZALITranslation and Introduction by W. H. T. GAIRDNER<br />
<br />
THE MISHKÂT AL-ANWAR[1] is a work of extreme interest from the viewpoint of al-Ghazzâlî's inner life and esoteric thought. The glimpses it gives of that life and thought are remarkably, perhaps uniquely, intimate. It begins where his autobiographical Al-Munqidh min al-Dalâl leaves off. Its esotericism excited the curiosity and even the suspicion of Muslim thinkers from the first, and we have deeply interesting allusions to it in Ibn Tufaill and Ibn Rushd, the celebrated philosophers of Western Islam, who flourished within the century after al-Ghazzâlî's death in 1111 (A.H. 505)--a fact which, again, increases its importance and interest for us. It was printed in Cairo (matba`at as Sidq, A. H. 1322), to which edition the references in the present work are made. There is another edition in a collection of five opuscules of Ghazzâlî under the title of the first of the five, Faisal al-Tafriqa.<br />
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<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3080178902721588711.post-65384665948864747732013-05-03T01:55:00.000-07:002013-05-03T01:55:00.500-07:00Secularism and Islamization of Society - A.N.M. Wahidur Rahman<!--[if !mso]>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Much ink has spent both by the Muslims and
non-Muslim scholars, particularly sociologist. Islamists, political scientists,
dealing with the question of relation between Religion and politics. The
traditional, or pre-modern, relationship between religion and politics was one
in which the two were closely integrated, one with the other religious beliefs
and practices entered into the heart of political process, supporting and
sustaining the exercise of power. Political concerns also, on the other hand
extended throughout the religious sphere. The two formed, in effect, one
co-terminus set of beliefs and actions it was a system in which social and
political life was touched at virtually all points by religious consideration<sup>1</sup>.
In that period Divine regulations govern economic behavior and ecclesial
centers frequently wield extensive economic power. Above all, government is
sacral. Religion and government, the two major society wide institutions of
social control form on integrated religio-polical system<sup>2</sup>. This
pattern applied to Buddhist, Hindu and Islamic societies. In the medieval West,
it was a basic feature wherever the Roman Catholic Church was in ascendancy. </span></div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">The key factor lay in whether religious authority
and political authority was exercised by the same leadership or by distinct
leaders. The former we can call as ‘organic model’ and the second we can call
in Christian Western sense ‘church-state model’. In the modern world, however,
the situation is generally much changed due to the modernisation and its
associate process of secularization, to which we shall return shortly. Here it
is suffice to say that steel the echo of intergraded or ‘organic model’ can be
found in contemporary patterns and assumptions. On Britain, for example, the monarch
is still technically both head of state-the political sphere-and supreme
Governor of the established Church of England. And in relatively
traditional Nepal,
King Birendra is, still seen as an incarnation of Hindu god Bishnu by the more
traditional sectors of society. Present day Saudi Arabia and Iran retains
the centrality of this religious element in their state affairs: There are no
secular constitutions. The basis of legal systems is the Shari’ah, derived from
the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (s). In Afghanistan Taliban
Government is striving to achieve that end. Pakistan which came into existence
on the plea of establishing an </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Islamic state and implementation of Shari’ah, it has
not yet succeed to materialize it fully due to secularist-conservative
entanglement in the political process of Pakistan. Here in this connection it
should be mentioned that in Islam it does not matter ‘who’ rules the country,
but it does matter ‘how’ it is ruled, whether it is ruled according to the
Shari’ah or not.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 2.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">The key factor to hamper the process of Islamization
or society is the secularism, imported from the western social structure or the
‘church-state model”. The key rule played in the secularization of Muslims
majority states of the world, are modernist who tried to distinguish between
Din and shari’ah, essential and non-essential, sacred and profane, universal
and particular, aspects of islam. Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan and his Alighar School in India and Muhammad Abdullah in the Middle East are regarded as the initiator of Islamic
Modernism. Without specially mentioning the secularism as the state policy,
they tried to reform the medieval Islamic law and to interpret the Qur’an and
Sunnah in Such a way that Sir Sayyid and Abduh became according to some
scholars, the champion supporter of secularist doctrine and policy.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">It is to be noted that as a concept it is somewhat
controversial, being viewed by some as anti-religious (La dini) and some by
neutral and still some as being indifferent to the role of religion in social
life. Looking at its etymological dictionary meaning it is evidenced that it
was basically anti religious movement, if we call it a movement. Oxford
Advanced Learners dictionary defined secularism as “the belief that laws,
education etc. should be based on facts, science etc, rather that on religion”.
Hence secularization means, According to the above dictionary, “To remove
something from control of the church or religion”.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Eric S. Wterhouse in an article entitled
‘Secularism’, which he contributed, to the Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics
defined secularism as “a movement, internationally ethical, negatively
religious, with political and philosophical antecedents”. He further wrote, “
Since it undertook to do this without reference to a Deity or a future life,
and thus proposed to fulfill a function of religions, apart from religious
association, it may be regarded as negatively religious”. He further says that
“it inherited the inevitable defects-the tendency to destructive rather that
constructive action, the wrapping influence of heated feeling, the limited
outlook and the negativism”. It has prejudice against religious implications of
life and conduct. According to him, it was the British utilitarianism who were
philosophically the sponsors of secularism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Secularism owes its name and in large measures its
existence to the life and labors of George Jacob Holyoake (b.1817) who coined
the term in 1850 from Bradlaugh, who along with Charles Watts, G.W. Foote and
other atheists were identified with secular movement. Secularism is wholly
unconcerned with the theological world and tilt interpretation. Hence,
historically “secularism has been intermingled with atheism throughout its
course”. Though Hoyoake tried to compromise between theism and atheism,
Bradlaugh “considered that secularism was bound to contest theistic belief and that
material progress was impossible to long as superstition so powerfully
manifested itself. Bradlaugh holds that the attempt to ignore rather that
denies religion is impractical, because religion embraces both secular and
spiritual concerns. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">The author of the article said, “it is an impossible
proportion to maintain that there may be a God, but that he does not concern
material existence”. He argues that one who believes in God, “it will be
sufficiently incontinently inconsistent to neglect the implication of his
belief upon conduct”. He opined, “it is for this reason that a secularism which
does not include a definitely anti-religious theory is bound to fail”, Now he
came to the conclusion that: </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">For this reason it does not seem apparent that
secularism is destined to survive as a theory of life and conduct, and must be
regarded as a movement arising out of, and passing with, the condition of its
time. Whiles its ethical aims were honorable, it lacks an adequate basis upon
which to establish itself as a permanent feature of human thought<sup>3</sup>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">During its hundred and fifty years of development,
the term secularism has taken different facet and meanings <sup>4</sup>. Some
sense of its multi-dimensional use can be traced if we distinguish some of its
constituent parts as delineated by K. Dobbelelaere:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">“Constitutional
secularization: the process whereby the official character and goals of the
stage cease to be defined kin religious terms”.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">“Policy Secularization: the
process whereby the state ceases to regular society on the basis of religious
criteria, and expands the policy domains and specific provision of the state
into areas previously the reserve of the religious sphere”.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">“Institutional
Secularization: the process whereby religious structures lose their political
saliency and influence as pressures groups, parties, and movements”. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">“Agenda Secularization: the
process whereby, issues, needs and problems deemed relevant to political
process cease to have overtly religious content, and whereby solutions
developed to resolve those issues are no logons developed to resolve those
issues are no lounge constructed on the basis of religious principles”.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Ideological secularization:
the process whereby the basic values and belief systems used to evaluate the
political reels and to give it meaning case to be couched in religious terms<sup>5</sup>”.
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">When the political power reformulates its power in
new (secular) terms and religious leaders defines and constructs their new and
somewhat different relationship with society and the state, it creates tension
in the society. Amidst this tension there arises three models of polity as
proposed by K. Modhurst in an article entitled “Religion & Politics: A
Typology”, Contributed to Scotish Journal of Religious Studies (1981). The
first he calls “ The confessional polity” where political leaders continue to
legitimize their rule in religious terms; equally, religious leaders mobilize
support against threats to their communal hegemony. Colombia and Iran and some
respects Ireland too offered as contemporary examples.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">A further pattern arises when secularization removes
religion as the major basis of the political system and the state comes to view
the forces of religion as just one group among, many contesting for power.
Medhurst calls this pattern as “religiously neutral polity”. Here religious
groups or parties become pressure to defend and promote their interest, i.e.,
religion.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Medhurst final model is the “anti-religious polity”.
This represents and activity on the part of the state to eliminate any religious
presence within political arena. Albenia is an example of this model. Here in
this model society and polity were to be reconstructed without any religious
institutions, symbols of practice. Commenting on this model Dr. Moyeser wrote:</span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2">
Yet these various attempts to eliminate religion have
failed. Indeed, in some instances, political oppression seems to have the
opposite of the intended effect.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Even in liberal-democratic politics, he says, it is
by no means clear that religion and politics to continue to lose mutual
relevance. Hadden and shape go so far as to purpose a cyclical theory of
secularization in which the process of removing religion from society contains
the seeds whereby religion is eventually revived and revitalized<sup>6</sup>.
They say that this worldly, secularized answers to the meaning and purpose of
life are alienating and unsatisfying Reviewing the country studies of Europe,
Africa, U.S.A. and Asia which were made by different scholars of religion and
politics, George Moyser came to this conclusion that,</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">In short, the age of anti-religious polity is
largely dead in Europe. A new age, in which religion can once again operate as
a relatively legitimate political force, seems to have dawned<sup>7</sup>. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">About Middle Eastern countries, India, Egypt as well
as many other African countries, and the United States, he says that studies
reveals the fact that a theistic and secularized state socialism have largely
collapsed. Religion continues to play a very powerful role in all countries of
the world, particularly in Islamic world. About India he comments that “ All in
All, Indian politics will no doubt continue to be heavily influenced by
religion as the country moves forward through the myriad problems of social and
economic and cultural change”<sup>8</sup>. Now let us turn to the problem of
Islamization. What is meant by Islamization,’ What is method? What is real
impediment to thepath of Islamization? What is its remedy at the present
jucture of our history? These are the questions we are supposed to answer if we
like to do some justice to this paper. But the span of the paper will not allow
us to go into the details. However, we shall try to present the issue in a
headline manner to provoke the discussion from the learned audience and
participants present here in this august occasion.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Islamization means <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">three</b> things:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">I.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">To implement the Islamic laws and values, as thought by the Qur’an and
Sunnah, into the society. In a word, implementation of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shari’ah</i> into the social milieu.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">II.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">To Implement the Islamic values to the new and new issues and
situations arising out of encroachment of Western institution and values into
our society. Here Islamization of society means the implementation of Islamic
social values into the non-Islamic structure of the society. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">III.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Abolition of those practices and institutions from the society, which
are unIslamic.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">It is, therefore, needless to say about Islamization
about society where the Islamic values are already in operation and are in
practice, such as in Iran and Saudi Arabia. Hence implementation of Islamic
values are required where there is no practice of Islamic value at all or where
some institutions and practices are Islamic and some are not. The last
alternative is the fact for the most countries for the Muslim world. Since in
this age of modern method of mass communication of mass media, non-Islamic
cultures and practices constantly pouring our territory, this is the time to
remain constantly on guard against this encroachment of alien cultures,
practices and values. But it is almost impossible to deter this flow of
cultural encroachment unless the heads of states take the initiative. Here lies
the reason for inevitable necessity for the formation of an Islamic state. In
this age of democracy, making of a state Islamically founded is an impossible
task unless Muslims are majority and they desire to make it so. And the
creation of this desire to live Islamically is the function of Da’wah. In order
to set mankind on the right path and provide a positive orientation in the
present morass, we must rediscover real Islam, which is correctly ever present
in the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet. To create a religiously based
social order is not an easy task, and human history knows how difficult it is
and how perennial a desideratum. Islam is a practical remedy for human ailment
and a recipe for how man may transcend his banalities and create a positive
human brotherhood. The factors that stood in the path of creating this viable
social order are many. Let us mention below a few key factors. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first
and foremost factors are secularism: A Muslim as a Muslim<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>cannot
believe in secularism. In any<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>one of
the meanings mentioned above, Islam is incompatible with secularism. No Muslim
who believes in an Al-Mighty God can consistently say that for a good part of
my action is not concern of God. No Muslim can say at the same time that I am a
Muslim and I want to remove the religion from the society. Akber S. Ahmed may
be quoted in this connection:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>‘Secular’
and ‘Muslim’ are by definition incompatible as any dictionary<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>will
confirm. There can be no Muslim without God-just as there can be<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>no
Christianity without Christ, Buddhism without Buddha, Marxism </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>without
Marx<sup>9</sup>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Lack of proper Knowledge of
Islam: From the beginning until the Western colonialism-which began to extend
its grasp throughout the world since the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
‘Ulama (fuqaha, Muhadditun, and Mufassirin) were the torchbearers of Islamic
science and technologies. But those glorious days of Muslim history turned
backward when Muslims became very much involved in power mongering forgetting
the real source of power-knowledge and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hikmah</i>
(science and technological know-how).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Introduction of Western
liberal/secular education: The Muslim society unreceptively adopted the western
liberal education without giving due weight to the teaching of the Qur’an and
Sunnah.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Material Prosperity of the
West: Some modernist Muslim became fascinated to the western way of thought and
action by seeing the material prosperity of the west particularly after the
renaissance<sup>10</sup>. (a team which, I think, should not be applied to term
is, according to some thinkers, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nahda</i>
which literally means the actualization of the potentialities latent in the
child. Hence Islamically it means to actualize all potentialities latent in
Islam into the society). The renaissance of the west was characterized with the
same ultimate principle, which inspired Greco-Roman antiquity, namely, the man
is the humanistic. This humanism dethroned the god of Christianity and replaces
him with man. Although the main élan of Islam is also humanistic but this
humanism is guided by God not by man. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Muslim reluctance to
knowledge: Knowledge is a lost treasure of the Muslims. They are asked to pick
it up where ever it is to be found. Muslim reluctance came in the walk of
western imperialist power when it intruded into the Muslim society. A good
number of ‘ulama’ considered the European language and technology as
un-Islamic, as it comes from those Christians who are very much critical of
Islamic institutions and practices. Then some ‘Ulama’ such as Deobandis,
decided to remain aloof from the European contact.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But the Madrasha education they sponsored,
lacked modern education. Hence in the long run Muslim became ignorant of their
own heritage and high days, and their education became ineffective for the
Muslim society. If Muslim are to survive as a nation as an Ummah, they will
have to devote their full energies and capacities to cope with the western technological
progress, but not at the expense of their own faith.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Heads of the states are not
the Ulama and experts of the Shari’ah but the secularist and liberal minded
Muslims: It is said that Modernist Muslims are inclined to the west by
attraction and the conservative by repulsion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Those Muslim who acqui5ed a good knowledge of western education they
became the heads of the state, administration; judiciary etc. Then they
naturally become reluctant to do the job implementation Shari’ah, abolition of
non-Islamic practices and institutions etc. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Conservative-modernist, or
orthodox-liberal disputes: In Muslim society though the Ulama still control
much of the public opinion, they are unable to face the western educated
liberal minded Muslims who became the leaders of the society and tries to
implement western values into the society; but ‘Ulama tries to resist this
attempt. As a result, the dispute arises between the two groups; the dispute
often leads to clash. Consequently lay Muslims become confused as to which
course they should follow.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Long western antipathy and
hatred towards Islam: It created a psychological barrier in the way of
Islamization of society. The western scholars are very much critical of
medieval Islamic way of thoughts and practices. This has increased considerably
by the technological development of media network. However some western
scholars now realized that the propaganda changed little Muslim attitude
towards the west, and they now begin to show some respect to the Muslim
perception of their religion, though the basic premises of the west still
remain unchanged.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Muslim’s lack of respect to
his own religion. This state of affairs became the best argument for the
western materialistic world against Islam: Some Muslims became very much critical
of Islam and began to question the very basic tents to Islam. For example,
Salman Rushdie’s Satanic Verses arose a huge controversy throughout the world
and some radical Muslims also took his side and argued in his favour. This has
increased embarrassment among the Muslims.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Lack of good moral character (Hosne Khulq)’ among the state leaders of
the Muslim world: Most of the leaders who are Muslims and act as the head of
the state or the institutions are lacked of Islamic character. So those who
work under such leaders do not feel obliged to lead an Islamic way of life.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Muslims against the Muslims: Western democracy and liberalism created a
system, which has scope to set a Muslim against Muslims.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">12.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Christian missionary from the very early had spread a network
throughout the Muslim world to convert the Muslims into Christianity. It is
still working in the guise of N.G.Os and humanitarian activities in the third
world countries. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Now the questions remain to be answered are (i) How
to mitigate or remove these problem mentioned above? And (ii) how to start the
Islamization process? There is no easy way to answer these questions. However,
I would like to say that according to the Qur’an the virtue are coeval. They
exist side by side. When Allah (Subahanahu a ta’la) created Adam as vicegerent
of the earth, he also created a Satan and gave Satan on his request to continue
his evil doings until the day of judgment<sup>11</sup>. Allah granting of this
facility to Satan means that men will never be able to free the society from the
evil forces and secret of virtue lies in the struggle against the vices. That
is why the institution of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jihad</i> also
will continue until the Day of Judgment, as the prophet says. If not ‘Jihad
with sword’, which according to some thinkers, is only permitted on the
condition of aggression, but <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jihad</i>
with the evil forces will continue forever. And this must be accompanied with
the proper knowledge of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Din</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Dunia </i>(the world). We know that God
established the superiority of man over other forces of the world in respect of
knowledge. Knowledge is the pre-requisite for establishing a God fearing <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(Taqwa)</i> and humanitarian society.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">As to the second question, we have a model
sanctioned by the Qur’an: “Call to the path of your lord with wisdom
(scientific knowledge) and with good moral counseling”. This is the basic
method of “Da’wah”. The combination of the two is absolutely necessary for
establishing Allah’s rule on earth. But due to the bifurcation between the two
in our systems and the present day Madrasha education represents the second”
(good moral counseling). That is why both are unable to guide to the path of
Allah. The perfect model is the combination of the two mentioned by the Qur’an.
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Some leading thinkers of the Muslim world also
suggested some method for the Islamization of society. For example, Hasan
al-Banna, the pioneer leader of the Ikhwan al-Muslimun or Egypt, in his
Risalat al-Ta’leem suggested two methods which he called maratib al-‘amal (the
level of work) and Marahil al-‘amal (the stages of work). As to the stages of
work he proposed seven basic stages for the revival of Muslims and establishing
an Islamic society.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">To reform oneself.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">To reform one’s own family.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">To reform society.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">To free society politically<sup>12</sup>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">To establish Islamic
Government.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">To re-establish Muslim <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ummah</i> and to revive <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Khalifah</i>, and finally.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">To lead the world and to
carry the responsibility or guiding it to the path of Allah. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">As to the level of works he emphasized that Muslim
must be well-equipped with the knowledge and faith and to be ready to sacrifice
one’s life in the path of Allah. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Another model of Islamization of society was offered
by the Turkish outstanding scholar Bediuzzaman Sa’id Nursi(1873-1960). His
lifer struggle became a legend for the Muslims of Turkey<sup>13</sup>. In his
Risala-I-Nur “he attempts to cure the collective hearts, the public opinion,
and the general conscience that have been subverted by corruptive tools
accumulated and stored up for thousand years, using in the cure, the drugs and
the remedies of the Qur’an and faith” <sup>14.</sup> The basic ingredients of
the Nursi model are: </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">To cure weakness of Iman
(faith) and development of individual conscience. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Islamic work must be done
with group approach.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Unity (a) among Muslim
individuals, (b) Among Muslim states, (c) a common fronts with other believers
against the enemies the enemies of believers. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Bediuzzaman emphasized that in the present age,
unbelief is much more common and attempts are being made to drive people away
from religion by the misguidance of technology and science. According to him,
it is therefore, necessary to study science from a religious point of view and
to study religious from scientific point of view. In other words, he advises us
to combine religious and modern science together and study them fully.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Another outstanding scholar of this subcontinent,
Mawlana Abu al-‘Ala Mawdudi, who was considered by some Islamic scholars as a
‘Mujaddid’ (renewal of the Shari’ah), said that the main aim of the prophetic
mission was the establishment of God’s sovereignty on earth. His analysis of
the contemporary situation is that the Muslim society has gradually drifted
away from the ideal pattern established by the Prophet and developed on the
same line during the period of the Khulfa-I-Rashideen. He says that the first
important change in the social body of Islam was the transformation of Khalifah
to monarchy. This brought grave change to weaken and consciously or
unconsciously a separation between religion and politics began to take place
(Secularism finds its way to Islam).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">The second major change was in the system of
education. This process culminated when Muslim succumbed to the colonial power
of the west. During this period an alien system was imposed. Because of this
new system of education separation of religion and politics became almost in
integral part of Muslim society. In the post-independent phase, the new
leadership of the Muslim countries has generally gone into the hands of those
people who are product of the colonial system of education. The Muslim
countries were begun to be led by those people who have much respect for
western values. Its consequence was inevitable –the beginning of
politico-ideological rift in Muslim society. Hence, according to Mawdudi, only
remedy to this secularist situation is to revive the pattern of ‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Khulafa-I-Rashidun’, </i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">which</span> was a perfect manifestation of
the perfect manifestation of the prophetic mission.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Now I would like to make some personal observation.
I have argued that the greatest impediment to the Islamization of society is
secularism. I have tried to show that secularism in any meaning or facets is
incompatible with Islam. I have tried to show that secularism in any meaning of
facets is incompatible with Islam. Islam is a complete code of life. There is
no distinction between public and private morality. There is nothing private or
exclusively private matter in Islam. For everything done or believed man are
responsible to God. To Muhammad (s) religious life was not a part time thing.
Every ‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ibadah</i> has social implication
and every social matter has religious to perform it in congregation, it places
emphasis on increasing brotherhood and fellow feeling among the Muslims. Above
all, the Qur’an says, prayer prohibits you from adultery, reprehensible action
and injustice. (Q.29: 45)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Likewise distribution of Zakah among the prescribed
personal and the association of Fasting in the month of Ramadan with Sadaqat
al-Fitra, and the institution of Hajj and the distribution of the meat of the
sacrificed animal, all have deepest social implication. That is the lord of the
world”. (Q, 6:162) Moreover, there is no more personal thing than one’s own
body and life. You have eyes but you cannot look to a foreign woman with ill
motive; you have hands but you cannot beat any one as you like; you have legs
but you cannot enter into anybody’s home without his prior permission. Your
life is more personal then anything else, but you cannot kill yourself. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">I may quote now from a Christian scholar, who says,</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">The struggle between religion and state that marked
western development did not appear in the Islamic world, partly because no
church in the western sense developed, and partly because so much of the law
that was applied was religious law…The ideal becomes not the separation of
religion and state, but the unification of religion and state”<sup>15</sup>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent2" style="margin-left: 0in; text-indent: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent2" style="margin-left: 0in; text-indent: 0in;">
I may
conclude my paper by saying that though secularism was the outcome of some
historical situation, it could not fulfill total human aspiration. Moreover, it
had shown a serious crack in solving the moral problems. The weakness of
secularism is the strengths for conservation which believes in the unity of
divine and mundane. Lawlessness is, at present, the obverse of free secular
democracy, as we are experiencing in Bangladesh. The truth is that western
civilization is a giant now fully corroded from within. Christianity was a
spiritual force until the recent centuries, and it is the Christian West who
sponsored secularism, which is turn, devastatingly damaged the spirituality of
Christianity itself. This situation reminds us of a verse from a Persian poet.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">The wonder is
not so much that you posses the </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Miraculous art
of healing like Jesus;</span></div>
<h4>
The wonder is rather that your patient is even</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">More sick than
before<sup>16</sup>.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -32.25pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">1.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>G. Moyser Politics and Religion in the Modern World (ed. George
Moyser London: Routledge, 1991) p. 12.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -32.25pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -32.25pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">D. E. Smith, ‘Religion and political Development (Boston; little Brown,
1970) p.6.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -32.25pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Eric S. Waterhouse, “Secularism”, Encyclopedia of religion and Ethics,
1949, pp.348-350.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -32.25pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">See k. Dobbelacre, “Secularization: A Multi dimensional Concept.”.
Current Sociology 29, vol. 1 (1981) pp. 11-12.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -32.25pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">George Moyser, “Politics and Religion in the modern World: an
overview”, in Politics and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">religion in
the Modern World</i>, pp. 14-15.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -32.25pt;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">J. K. Hadden and A. Shupe, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Prophetic
Religions and Politics: Religion:</i> Religion and political order (New york: Paragon House
(1986), p.XV</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -32.25pt;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>G. Moyser, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Religion and Politics in the Modern World</i>, p.18.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -32.25pt;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Ibid.pp.19-23</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">References</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Akbar S. Ahmed, Post
Modernism and Islam (London: Routledge, 1991), P. 320.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan once
in a letter from London
to Muhsin al-Mulk, attributed the Indian peoples as dirty animals as compared
to the Western Whitman.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">See the Qur’an: 7: 14-17; 15: 36-39 and 38: 79-82. The repletion of same
theme in three places in the Qur’an indicates the importance of this human
situation in the eyes of the Qur’an.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">He wrote the book when Egypt was still
under the foreign occupation.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Bediuzzaman Sa’id Nursi was
born in Anatolia in 1873. From the beginning
of his life he was a devout Muslim. In World War I, Bediuzzaman Sa’id Nursi
served as the commander of a volunteers’ regiment in the Caucasian front and in
Eastern Anatolia. The heroism he demonstrated
in the battles was highly admired by the generals of the Ottoman Army. The
Signs of Miraculousness (Isharat ul-I’jaz), which received immense appreciation
from eminent scholars, was written during the war on horseback, front line and
trench. In one of those battles against the invading Russian forces, Bediuzzaman
and ninety other otured, He was sent to prisoners’ camp in Kostroma, Northwestern
Russia. One day the Russian Nicola Nicolaevich, commander-in-chief
of the Caucasian front and uncle of the Czar, came to the camp for inspection.
Bediuzzaman did not stand up before the general. When asked, Bediuzzman
explained the reason in this words; “ I am a Muslim scholar and have belief in
my heart. Whoever has belief in his heart is superior to the one who does not.
I cannot act against my belief”. He was court-martialed, sentences to death,
and, when the sentence was to be executed, he began his last duty, prayer,
before the shooting squad. The general witnessing the scene, was deeply
impressed, and came to Bediuzzaman, this time with an apology. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">S. Kurter O’ Berge,
“Bediuzzaman’s Model for Islamic Renaissance”, in Al-Ittihad 15 (October 1978)
P.36.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Freeland Abbott, “Pakistan and
the Secular State”, in South Asian Politics and
Religion, ed. D.E. Smith (Princeton: University Press, 1966) p.359.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Quoted by Fazlur Rahman, “Islamic
Challenge and Opportunities”, in Islam: Post Influence and Present Challenge,
Ed. By A. Welch and Picrre Caches, (New York: State University of N.Y. Press,
1979), P.330.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: small;">*Late A.N.M. Wahidur Rahman</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;">Professo,<span> Department of Philosophy</span></span></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3080178902721588711.post-78768093074483915512013-04-29T10:27:00.003-07:002013-04-29T10:32:04.318-07:00Knowledge as a Mode of Being: Mulla Sadra’s Theory of Knowledge: Hossein Sheykh Rezaee* and Mohammad Mansur Hashemi∗∗<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Abstract</b>:</div>
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Mulla Sadra’s (1571/2-1640) theory of knowledge is unique because, contrary to modern epistemology which is separate from ontology, it is a part of his ontological system and cannot be discussed in isolation. Rather than pure epistemology or ontology, Sadra has an ‘ontoepistemology’, according to which truth and being are two sides of the same coin. For this reason, this paper starts by explaining two of Sadra’s ontological doctrines: ‘the primacy of being’ and ‘the gradation of being’, both dealing with ‘being’, which is the cornerstone of Sadra’s system. After that, Sadra’s ontological definition of knowledge is explored. According to this definition, knowledge is a mode of (immaterial) being and is identical with presence.<br />
<a name='more'></a>Then Sadra’s account of the real known objects will be explained. According to him, ‘mental existences’, which are created by the soul when confronted with external objects, are the real known objects. In the next step, the relationship between the known objects and the knower will be discussed, which according to Sadra is identity. The role of knowledge, which is a factor in changing the substance of the soul, is the next issue discussed. This role will be explained by means of ‘substantial motion’, which is an important ontological doctrine in Sadra’s system. Finally, two points in Sadra’s epistemology will be considered critically: the issue of correspondence and his theory of truth. It will be argued that Sadra is not clear about the issue of correspondence and therefore his theory of knowledge cannot cover experimental knowledge.</div>
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* Faculty Member of the Iranian Institute of Philosophy, Tehran.</div>
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E-mail: sheykhrezaee@irip.ir</div>
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∗∗ Member of The Encyclopedia Islamica Foundation</div>
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E-mail: mansourhashemi@yahoo.com</div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3080178902721588711.post-8828133163284414732013-04-25T02:03:00.000-07:002013-04-25T02:03:35.382-07:00DIALECTICS IN SOCIO-SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY: ISLAM CONTRA OCCIDENT<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial;">Masudul Alam Choudhury*</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span><b><span style="font-family: Arial;">abstract</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">The field of dialectical reasoning in constructing theory and deriving epistemology surrounding the theory construction is examined. A stark difference is found to exist between the dialectical legacy of the Occidental philosophy of science and what Islam has to offer in this area on analytical grounds. This difference and the emergent analytical perspectives are studied in reference to the literature and in the light of the Islamic and contrasting epistemologies and ontologies of socio-scientific problems. Indicative applications are presented in the areas of for socioeconomic development and neurocybernetics as a new field.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">Scientific formalism in the natural and social sciences depends on the dialectical methodology of some kind to explain the dynamics inherent in the problem under study. By definition, dialectics means the recursive process of interaction between entities, shown either as variables or agency. Such interactions first arise from power and conflicts, which then move into synthesis by the convergence of power and its enforcement. The process from thesis to synthesis is described as an unending terrain of continuity, so that the dialectical system in this sense is governed and shaped by continuous conflicts and power between the entities and agencies. </span><br />
<a name='more'></a><span style="font-family: Arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Arial;">Explaining dialectics<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">Here is a summary configuration of the dialectical process:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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to="1in,31.2pt"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"/> <w:wrap anchorx="page"/> </v:line><![endif]--><span style="height: 30px; left: 0px; margin-left: 71px; margin-top: 17px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 30px; z-index: 2;"><img height="30" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/nissan1/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image009.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1027" width="30" /></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>{R} </span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Arial; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">®</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>X<sub>2</sub><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Arial; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">®</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Arial; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">È</span></span><sub><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt;">j</span></sub><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt;">{X<sub>j</sub>} </span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Arial; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">Ì</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt;"> X; </span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Arial; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">Ç</span></span><sub><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt;">j</span></sub><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt;">{X<sub>j</sub>} = </span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Arial; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">f</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Arial; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">®</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Arial; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">®</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Y<sub>2</sub> = f<sub>2</sub>(X<sub>2</sub>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Arial; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-char-type: symbol; mso-symbol-font-family: Symbol;">®</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>X<sub>n</sub><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Y<sub>3</sub> = f<sub>3</sub>(X<sub>3</sub>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Arial;">Figure 1: The dialectical process<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">R: domain of rationalism (expanded below); {X<sub>j</sub>} are subsets of X and are permanently induced by the characteristics of R as the epistemology of the dialectical process. Conflict and independence between the {X<sub>j</sub>} cause the measure of the set X to be incompletely spanned by the {X<sub>j</sub>}. The process is marked by termination of the process with power and hegemony in the set X and the emergence of the set Y, which repeats the character of conflict and independence of X. The process continues <i>ad-infinitum</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Figure 1 can be further stylized in Figure 2 to bring out the methodological individualism and independence of relationships between the agents and variables in the sense of organic continuity <i>res extensa</i> a la Rene Descartes (eds. Commins & Linscott, 1954). This is also the consequence of social Darwinism on the ultimate nature of initial interaction leading to terminal bifurcations via the route of conflict and power. It is also the characterization of the social universe conceptualized by Wallerstein (1998).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">W<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">Sets of subsets<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>starting disintegration<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>increasing disintegration into<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">With initial interaction<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>caused by first level<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>methodological individualism<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Of methodological<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>and mutual independence<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>individualism<span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>caused by power and conflict<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 7;"> </span>and continuity of the same<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Arial;">Figure 2: How the dialectics of power and conflict lead into disintegration of an initially interactive process into increasing methodological individualism and mutual independence of relations<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Arial;">Rationalism and the dialectical process<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">The emergence of the dialectical process owes to rationalism as the human mind's ultimate epistemology for explaining phenomenon. Rationalism itself is a cognitive philosophy that embodies a sensate approach to explain reality in every branch of scientific inquiry involving cause and effect. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Rationality is considered as the ultimate foundation of economic science by Ludwig von-Mises (1960). Likewise, Hayek (1979) writes in support of rationalism as the core of the dialectical process conjectured in occidental socio-scientific inquiry. According to rationalism, only the mind, not the edicts of foundational and abiding texts, explain social values. Observing Comte and Hegel’s role in scientific historicism, Hayek writes (slightly edited, op cit, pp. 388-89): “Comte’s attitude on this (historiography) is really not very different from Hegel’s statement that all that is real is rational and all that is rational is also real – only that instead of rational Comte would have said historically necessary and therefore justified. Everything appears to him as in this sense justified in its time, slavery and cruelty, superstition and intolerance, because – this he does not say but it is implied in his reasoning – there are no moral rules which we must accept as transcending our individual reason, nothing which is a given and unconscious presupposition of all our thought, and by which we must judge moral issues.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">Rationalism is thus conjoint with dialectics in the phenomenological explanation of conflict and power that underlie all socio-scientific inquiry in the Occidental worldview. On this point writes Holton (1975) regarding the inner institutional power that science develops for its life. Power, hegemony, self-interest and conflicts also mark the resistance to the emergence of scientific revolution out of the rubric of normal science. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3080178902721588711.post-87568953340831476742013-04-23T23:32:00.000-07:002013-04-23T23:39:39.956-07:00CLEFT BETWEEN EASTERN ISLAM AND WESTERN CHRISTIANITY CREATED BY THE WESTERN DECLENSION OF JUSTICE AND SECULARIZATION OF RELIGION - Muin-ud-Din Ahmad Khan<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgypFhEGsKbmGh9hL78WALGRQBVjNjD7gwKUjaSYwa89WuJuWcubIGSDjVRfH0r-2cqCPo3zBFSbWUdfJzO67-rbJTmnAM78bU_rW3Iar8QFb8fHlYhG-QzoJjDugBzUqlUhEcAZSrrIBU/s1600/35357_420153438119_750683119_4591059_4377222_n.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgypFhEGsKbmGh9hL78WALGRQBVjNjD7gwKUjaSYwa89WuJuWcubIGSDjVRfH0r-2cqCPo3zBFSbWUdfJzO67-rbJTmnAM78bU_rW3Iar8QFb8fHlYhG-QzoJjDugBzUqlUhEcAZSrrIBU/s1600/35357_420153438119_750683119_4591059_4377222_n.jpg" /></a>It is plain truism to conceive justice as to give somebody
his just share, his natural deserts, his justly acquired claims. It is opposed
to injustice, which means depriving somebody of his just share, denying
somebody of just claim, oppressing and repressing somebody unjustly. Both these
positive and negative situations inevitably carry moral and ethical
connotation. For the reason why justice does not apply to any species of
animals save and except human being since others lack freedom of will, freedom
of choice and the power of discrimination between good and evil through diverse
animal species may share rational calculation and general intelligence with
humankind. Thus, justice is the distinctive capability of human being. First of
all, we come across the concept of justice in the Old Testament of the holy
Bible in the form of Righteousness (<i>sadaqu</i>) and the selfsame concept
runs through the New Testament down to the holy Quran (<i>adl</i>). This
Semitic Abrahamic religious cultural civilizational justice is ascribed in its
all round perfection to the supreme lord, the one and unique Jehovah, God,
Allah as the Jews, Christians and Muslims call Him respectively. And, at the
same time, justice is demanded of men and women in accordance with his or her
capacity in all mutual dealings and in his or her prayerful submission to the
supreme lord, which has been tagged with religious faith in the all
powerfulness of the supreme lord and resurrection of human beings after death
on the Day of Final judgment by the supreme lord and award of appropriate
reward and punishment to men and women for their good or bad motive and action.</div>
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In the Western tradition on the other hand, we find the
great Greek philosopher Plato considering in the first instance the role of
justice in human life in more than one millennium later than the O.T. in the 4<sup>th</sup>
century B.C. (Before Christ), in his famous dialogue of the Republic. He
acknowledges the pivotal role of justice in the functioning of the human soul
(Nous) and as such its being the fundamental element of human life. Plato
begins his discourse by saying that justice is ‘to give everybody his due’. But
as it carries the implication of rendering equal rights to master and slave
alike and thereby jeopardizing the Athenian democracy of a minority of citizen
class, he reeled back to legal right. On the other hand he seems to have
postulated ‘due’ as meaning morally fair and moral good. But unlike due,
‘right’ can be applied to rendering to somebody merely the legal deserts. This
Platonic declension of the concept of justice turning its moral connotation of
due to the secularist legal right, suited well with the imperial designs of the
Roman Empire, which was also ruled by the
citizens with the forced labour of slaves and serfs. The Romans adopted the
justice of legal rights as the foundation stone of the empire. </div>
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The post Renaissance Christian West accepted Roman law
epitomized by the concept of ‘giving everybody his right’ as the basis of
modern Western civilization, which was paganistic and secular in orientation
and stood wide apart from the divinely inspired Semitic prophetic intention and
moral denotation of justice. Consequently, the Western modern civilization was
skeptical to religion and spiritual values from the very birth. It creates a
wide gulf between the modern Christian west and Islamic east, the latter being
insistent upon unstinted faith in the unity and lordship of Allah and religious-moral-spiritual
values of the scripture. The Platonic declension of the meaning of justice
combined with the Greek-Roman paganistic secularism in conjunction with the
post-renaissance Darwinian theory of ‘natural selection’ of species and Adam
Smithian ‘usurious interest’ based capitalism eked out a brand naturalistic
secularism in the West, which is spiritually, socially and economically
repugnant to Islam. The Western Christian’s gross deviation from the original
standpoint of justice as ‘rendering due’ to the declensional meaning of ‘giving
legal right’, has created an unbridgeable chasm between them and the Muslims,
which needs be properly analysed and clearly understood by both sides.</div>
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Judging justice from the Muslim point of view, the
naturalist and secular juridical meaning implied by rendering rights, whether
fundamental, humanitarian or liberalistic freedom oriented as adopted or
adopted by the pagan Roman imperialism and the capitalist secular modern West,
to say the least, amount to a perversion of justice pure and simple. This
reminds us resonant Quranic warning: ‘When you judge between the people, judge
with justice (<i>adl</i>),’ rejecting thereby any deviation or laxity in the
dispensation of justice. It also amounts to outright rejection of Roman
contention of the blindness of the goddess of law. Furthermore, to uproot such
contention of blindness and laxity, the holy Quran exhorts: ‘Verily Allah
commands you to do justice mingled with mercy (<i>bi’l adl wa’l-ihsan</i>)’,
preferring thereby clemency to harshness in the dispensation of justice.</div>
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A gaping divide between the Western Christianity and Islam,
which is presently surfacing world-wide with considerable anguish and ferocity
by clever maneuvering of the western media in collusion with surreptitious scum
of Western Diplomacy, resides partly (i) in the respective cosmological
theories of western science and Islam and partly, (ii) in the nature of the
respective Christian and Muslim religious faith relating to the truth of the
mission of Isa Masih/Jesus Christ; and in addition (iii) in the open and / or
covered ambition of the capitalist Western Christians to grabbing the natural
wealth of the Muslim lands.</div>
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Forrest Cookson, says: “Muslim world and West have a deep,
probably irreconcilable, difference in establishing the most sacred constraints
on social behavior. Claims made or constraint or acceptance and demand for
apology, given and accepted (pertaining to cartoons) are really irrelevant”...
To the Muslim all of life is shaped down and guided by God’s teaching as
represented in the holy Qur’an... “The implication of this faith is the
extension of the religion into everyday activities of family, into relation
with other persons, into the political sphere and finally, the rules of market.
Human rights, freedom of speech and freedom of religion derives from the holy
Quran itself.” “The secular West has a completely different view. Liberal
democracy is built on a view of religion that believes in God as an abstract
intellectual entity.” Freedom of speech is a fundamental principle of Western
secular society.</div>
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This is the general attitude of the secular democratic West
towards God, religion, prophets and related sacrosanct objects. In view of the
Qur’anic direction: “O you who embraced faith! If any erring person (<i>fasiq</i>)
brings to you detrimental news, thoroughly scrutinize it; lest you should
inflict upon people harm out of ignorance, whereupon you get up repentant upon
what you have committed! (<i>Hujrat, 49:6</i>).” </div>
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A minute examination of the above attitude, which is typical
of the Renaissance bound Protestant Christians, brings into perspicuity an
evolutionary metamorphosis in the texture of the Christian faith that has
created an unbridgeable spiritual chasm between the Christian and Islamic
faith, even though to prove their metal the case of both needs be genetically
referred to the Semitic Abrahamic conviction of faith in One Omnipotent God,
the Supreme Lord of the universe.</div>
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Commensurate with the above mentioned Platonic declension of
the meaning of ‘justice’ from rendering ‘due’ to giving ‘right’ and thereby
taking it out of the hands of the divine authority and entrusting it to the
legislative power of the human authority, dragging justice from divine
prerogative down to humanism, in the arena of Christian faith, the original
Creator, Sustainer, Providence of the Universe, the Omnipotent Supreme Lord,
God, has been reduced to ‘Intelligent Designer’ (I.D.) of the creation. Not
only that, the secular West and its liberal democracy have reduced God into an
ABSTRACT intellectual entity, that is to say, to an IDEA or CONCEPT of God that
is nothing concrete or really objectively meaningful.</div>
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Thus the Christian faith of God, according to this secular
political version, amounts to a belief in the abstract idea of God. As such,
the distance between the modern Christian faith and the Muslim faith of living
Allah, tend to stand a world apart, so that, it is plainly stated, that, in
discussing abstract issues including religion anything goes. Nevertheless, in
the secular West religion must not be deemed to have become unimportant. It is
still very much important in the life of the people. But secularism has
uprooted it from the socio-economical-political sphere of life. The modern West
inclines to interpret individualism as ‘homomansura’ meaning human values and
human success as the measure of all things.</div>
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Modern West secularism refers to exclusively in economical
and political sphere of life. It is essentially expressed as ‘secularization’
of society meaning “the act or process of removing the influence or the power
that religion has over something”; “the secularization of society and
education” and by secularism: the belief that religion should not be involved
in the organization of society, education etc. (Oxford Dictionary).</div>
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The secular West is thus firmly set on the three fundamental
principles of (a) Freedom of speech and press, (b) Freedom of religion and
conscience and (c) Constitutional Secular Democracy.</div>
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The differences in views over the recent ‘<i>Cartoon
Controversy</i>’ are deep and fundamental. The aggrieved Muslims are
essentially stating their worldview and the west is stating theirs. These are
truly different and cannot be reconciled. These are indeed very valuable tips
for Muslims to understand the point of view of the West. Rudyard Kipling
(1865-1936), Nobel prize winner of 1907, had pronounced the world famous
observation about a hundred years ago that, “The East is East and the West is
West, the twain shall never meet”. The contemporary Eastern Muslim sage Iqbal
cautioned : “O’ people of the East don’t judge the red lips of western girls as
the sign of health! O’ people of the West, don’t regard the world as a shop of
God!” Keeping aside the inexorable inner conflict of capitalism, there is
seemingly a covert hint in the above quotations of an over-confident feeling of
overwhelming superiority complex of experimental science oriented secular
democratic West in their technologically acquired ability to dominate the rest
of the world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3080178902721588711.post-839902252298500502011-03-03T01:44:00.000-08:002013-07-31T12:24:10.233-07:00MUSLIM STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM IN BENGAL<b><span style="color: #990000; font-family: Arial;"></span></b><span style="color: #990000; font-family: Arial;"></span> <br />
<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
<b><span style="color: #660000;">MUSLIM STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM IN </span></b><b><span style="color: #660000;">BENGAL</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #660000;">[FROM PLASSEY TO </span></b><b><span style="color: #660000;">PAKISTAN</span></b><b><span style="color: #660000;"> </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #660000;">A.D. 1757-1947]</span></b></div>
<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">
<b><span style="color: #990000;">Prof. Dr. Muin-ud-Din Ahmad Khan</span></b></div>
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<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>BOOK CONTENTS</b> </span></div>
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Introduction</div>
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Chapter I: Socio-Economic Conditions of the Muslims of Bengal- 1757-1830.</div>
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Chapter II: Religious Revivalism- 1818-1870</div>
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Chapter III: The Revolt of 1857</div>
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Chapter IV: The Sepoy Mutiny and the Muslim Community of Bengal</div>
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Chapter V: Constitutional Struggle: Muslim Modernism and Loyalism- 1857-1913</div>
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Chapter VI: Partition of Bengal and Foundation of Muslim League-1905</div>
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Chapter VII: Khilafat Movement </div>
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Chapter VIII: The Concept of Pakistan</div>
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Chapter IX: The Case of Unity</div>
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Chapter X: Pakistan Resolution</div>
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Chapter XI: Later Constitutional Development and Emergence of Pakistan</div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b>INTRODUCTION</b> </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;">The history of the Muslims in Bengal under British rule (C.E. 1757-1947) represents a sad story interspersed with brilliant epochs of heroic struggle for self-preservation under adverse circumstances and for freeing the country from foreign yoke. The two trends of the struggle, which were closely interlinked, took different shapes at different times with the change of circumstances and opportunity though their basic aims remained always the same.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;">In the first place, as soon as the heat of the Plassey conspiracy passed, the Muslim upper class realised the damaging consequences of British occupation. They flocked under the patriotic banner of Nawab Mir Qasim in C.E. 1763-1764 with the object of driving the foreign rulers out of the country. But unskilled soldiery and broken spirit of a decaying social structure proved fragile when struck by well-disciplined and better equipped British army at Katwa and Buxar. <sup>1</sup> Localised sporadic rebellions against the British rule are also observed in the activities of the <i>Faqirs</i> and the <i>Sanyasis</i> under the leadership of Majnu Shah and others during the later half of the eighteenth century. But being more or less detached from the mass of the people, their struggle fell short of producing any abiding effect or fruitful result.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;">Secondly, the mass of the people having been accustomed for centuries to thrive in their peaceful callings under the protection of the Muslim upper class, appear to have grown a sense of disinterestedness in political affairs. For, political changes were usually affected by the top layer of the society and the Muslim princes who established their own rule, from time to time, always kept the welfare of the masses in view.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"> Naturally, the masses were slow in realising the difference between an indigenous rule and a foreign regime and it took them a long time to grasp the awful consequences of the Battle of Plassey (C.E. 1757). As a matter of fact, they began to evince a ‘collective consciousness’ of a socio-political nature not earlier than C.E. 1820; that is also under the pressure of economic destruction to which they were subjected by the self-aggrandising policy of the East India Company’s servants. The renewed struggle which stemmed from this mass-consciousness was confined more or less to the mass-society or lower class and unlike the earlier political repercussions, it was motivated by the economic welfare of the masses and it derived its inspiration from the religious reform movements, which remained effective down to C.E. 1870. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;">Thirdly, during the middle of the nineteenth century a small middle class was also growing among the Muslims of Bengal, which being convinced of the invincible military strength of the British, endeavoured to direct Muslim thought and energy towards absorbing Western culture in self-preparation. On the ruins of the great rebellion of 1857-58, they built up a constitutional movement with the object of ameliorating socio-economic conditions of the Muslims and of bringing them at par with the progressive Hindus so as to prepare them to fight out their own future in a worthwhile manner. This modernist movement of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan and was largely responsible for the growth of a healthy political consciousness among the Muslims of Bengal during the twentieth century.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;">Although the struggle for freedom in Bengal started soon after the Battle of Plassey, there is little in the eighteenth century which goes beyond local patriotism. It was the advent of mass-consciousness in the nineteenth century, linked up with the chain of religious, economic and political movements, which resulted in the achievement of Pakistan. Again in a strictly nationalistic sense, freedom movement, among the Muslims of Bengal, with a well defined objective, may be said to have started in 1940, by their collaboration with other Muslims of the sub-continent in the Pakistan movement. But, as indicated above, the Pakistan movement itself was not the commencement of the struggle, but represented the beginning of the end. It was a climax of a series of religious, social and political movements, which started more than a century earlier. In this broader perspective, the struggle for freedom in Bengal is to be regarded as more or less co-extensive with the growth of mass-consciousness. Hence, our account must begin from the time of the advent of this phenomenon in the nineteenth century. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;">Accordingly, the present study has been divided into ten chapters dealing with the socio-economic background of the freedom movement, the character of the religious reform movements and the peasant agitation of Bengal during the nineteenth century, and the different aspects of the constitutional movement following the great rebellion of 1857-58 marking the achievement of Pakistan in 1947.</span></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3080178902721588711.post-89853784449410345152010-08-24T10:15:00.000-07:002013-04-25T02:05:24.209-07:00A Brief Presentation on the Oriental and Occidental Perspective of Justice - Prof. Dr. Muin-ud-Din Ahmad Khan<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 17px;"></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 17px;"></span>In the West justice is dispensed according to the law. Both ‘law’ and ‘justice’ in the West are concepts and ideas and are, as a rule, more or less fixed ideas. Hence the judgment elicited from the law are often too harsh or too soft, especially because the laws are enacted by an interested faction of the a party or parties in power to suit their ideals or convenience which may not fully tally with the changing space-time and personal circumstances. As a consequence from a wholesome view in such lopsided enactment of fixed law, there invariably remain many gaps and loopholes, which beget ambiguities.<br />
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<span style="font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 17px;">Moreover, Platonic declension of the meaning of justice from rendering every body his or her ‘due’ which implies ‘birth right’—to giving one one’s enacted ‘legal right’ (as we have explained in a previous paper): which amongst to denying the natural ‘due right’ and imposing artificial ‘legal right’ by the Majestic will of a sovereign king or emperor or national assembly in the form of carefully formulated laws by learned legal experts and over and above that, as and when those laws are codified after the model of Justinian Code or Nepolianic Code, the laws being the tools of justice, become highly professional, hardly understandable to the general people for whose welfare these are enacted.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 17px;">In the Western historical process, the adoption of Platonic declension of the meaning of justice by the Roman emperors and their adoption of an artificial and dead language of Latin as the Roman Imperial Court Language, made direct communication between the judges and the plaintiff and litigant (complainant and defendant) practically impossible. To facilitate the legal communication between them the legal usage of installing the mediating pleaders on both sides of the plaintiff and litigant gradually emerged. As we have noticed in our first discourse that in Roman times the pleaders were highly specialized professional lawyers who pleaded the cases of the complainant and defendants, as one against the other, in chaste legal terms before the judges and thereafter placed the judgement in plain language before their respective clients. This usage was doggedly followed by the medieval and modern West employing the professional advocates and barristers as well as now defunct Indo-British Ukil and Mukhtear to do the selfsame functions of the pleaders.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 17px;">Obviously in such Court proceedings law becomes predominant over life, demanding adjustment of life to the requirement of the law. It smacks of a philosophy of ‘life for the law’ as diametrically opposed to the combined Eastern commitment to ‘law is for life’.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 17px;">Can’t it be argued then that, if you believe in ‘human right’ as a gift of law (enacted by the human sovereign), then law becomes the regulatory principle of human life including human rights; but if you believe in ‘human rights’ as due to him by virtue of his birth as a human being as a gift of Nature and as a gift of Creator Allah, then law becomes purported to the welfare of human life including human rights? Here lies a gaping cleft between the West and the East. To the West, life is for law and to the East law is for life. It brings us back once again to the difference of ‘right ‘ and ‘due’ which widely divides also the intellectual hue between the Modern Western Christianity and Modern Islam, the West advocating modification of the activities of life to conform to the Law whereas the East demanding modification of Law for promoting the welfare of life. </span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 17px;">The gaps and loopholes of the Western law can be illustrated with an amiable humor by the legal demand of Portia to the plaintiff Shylock, in Shakespeare’s <i>Merchant of Venice</i>, to take a pound of flesh from the chest of Antonio as per legal contract of penalty between them, on the expiry of the date of the repayment of the debt, but she demanded not to shed a drop of blood which was not provided in the contract, that restrained Shylock from perpetrating his vengeful design. Here activities of life are modified by the demand for the conformity to the law.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 17px;">In another brand of humor, it is said that in the Western Law Courts the judge is a cipher whose honorable ears are being taken possession of by the two sets of pleaders, one representing the plaintiff and the other representing the defendant and whosoever party succeeds in tilting his face towards it, that party wins the case.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 17px;">In the East, on the other hand, justice is not a fixed idea or a mere concept. In Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam justice or ‘bichar’ is a processual verbal noun and calls for a processual operation. In Aryan Sanskrit representing both Hinduism and Buddhism, justice is called ‘bichar’ meaning ‘judging’ and it is modified by the adverb ‘nyaya’ meaning justly, that is, justly judging. The same is also in Bangla language. It is called <i><u>nyaybichar</u></i> in conjugated term, which also means ‘justly judging’, that is nyayata<u> bichar, </u>in Sanskrit terminology.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-size: 13pt;">In Islam, Justice is called <i>adl</i> and the function of judging is called <i>hakm</i>. The Holy Quran says ‘idha hakamtum baynan-nasi an tahkumu bi’l –adl’, whenever you judge between the people judge with justice (Surah Nisa; </span><st1:time hour="16" minute="58"><span style="font-size: 13pt;">4:58</span></st1:time><span style="font-size: 13pt;">). The Quran further commands, while, judging “to restore the due trust to its owner”, which is justice and Holy Prophet Muhammad (SAW) defines justice as “to render the due right to its owner”. This is in complete conformity with the Bible, which seems to have been quoted by Plato in his exposition of the meaning of justice in his <i>Republic.</i></span></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3080178902721588711.post-29421054345569715832010-08-01T23:54:00.001-07:002013-04-25T02:08:02.881-07:00INEVITABILITY OF RELIGION IN THE HYPER-TECH 21ST CENTURY: BUT WHAT KINDS OF RELIGION? - Joseph T. O’Connell<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in -0.5in 0.0001pt -0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.75in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Bookman Old Style'; font-size: small;">[Advance text of lecture to be given on </span><span style="font-size: small;"><st1:date day="23" month="4" year="2009"><span style="font-family: 'Bookman Old Style';">April 23, 2009</span></st1:date></span><span style="font-family: 'Bookman Old Style'; font-size: small;"> in </span><span style="font-size: small;"><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-family: 'Bookman Old Style';">Chittagong</span></st1:place></st1:city></span><span style="font-family: 'Bookman Old Style'; font-size: small;"> at the request of Professor Muin-ud-din Ahmad Khan]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Bookman Old Style'; font-size: small;">The last thing that any responsible historian should do is set himself up as a predictor of the future of so protean a phenomenon as the religious life of humankind for an entire century along the zigzag road of human history. So what am I to do when asked to do just that by a respectable philosopher like our distinguished senior colleague, host and friend, Professor Muin-ud-din Ahmad Khan? Instead of dithering over the assignment, let me propose that, rather than attempting to predict the future of religion with any degree of precision, we look toward the future together, linking what we already know is taking place to whatis more or less likely to develop later in the century in relation to what we do know now. We may not determine just how our posterity will feel and act religiously, but we may gain some idea of the kind of global conditions with which they will have to cope religiously and/or otherwise.<o:p></o:p> </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: 'Bookman Old Style'; font-size: small;">Let us assume that it is reasonable for humans to look toward the future, at least the near future, and try to make reasonable guesses, if not firm predictions. We do this all the time, often enough with a fair degree of short-term accuracy and it’s good for us that we do so. Otherwise all our projects and planning would come crashing down around our uninformed heads. The simpler the questions to be answered, the closer they relate to us and our surroundings and the shorter the time we project into the future, the more likely will our guesses be borne out. But the more complex the question or topic of concern, the more dynamic and variable it is and the farther into the future we try to project the outcome, the tougher the task becomes until it becomes virtually or actually impossible.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Bookman Old Style'; font-size: small;">It’s in that category of the virtually or actually impossible that we must place the grand question of the state of human religious history toward the end of the twenty-first century. This century is already characterized by what we call high-tech communications and we are assured that radically more advanced technology, including communications technology, is on the way. It is these yet to come (but in the cyber pipeline as it were) even more sophisticated hi-tech </span><span style="font-size: small;">2 </span><span style="font-family: 'Bookman Old Style'; font-size: small;">resources that I am dubbing ‘hyper-tech’ in this talk. I was fudging or exaggerating a bit when I said ‘virtually or actually impossible’ because while I’m convinced that there is so much about the future of religion in rest of this century that we cannot anticipate, there is still quite a bit that we can anticipate with some degree of confidence. We can surely point to some factors that will be affecting human religious life a century down the road (and with greater certainty the closer we are in time to the present). Likewise I think we can make reasonable guesses (again more confidently and accurately the closer we are to the beginning than the end of the century) about certain typical characteristics and aspects of religious life even if we can’t say all that much about the overall state of religions life of eight or ten billion people by the year 2101!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Bookman Old Style'; font-size: small;">But why, we might well ask ourselves, bother to do so (apart from honoring the request of a distinguished scholar like Professor Muin-ud-din)? There are several good reasons. For one thing, it stretches our minds to do so and gets us to consider possibilities we’d be less apt to think about if we’re always looking to the past as we historians tend to do or are preoccupied with the immediate present as most sensible people tend to be. We tend to take the given for granted and not realize how changing human life has always been and how it is becoming more so every day.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Bookman Old Style'; font-size: small;">There is another aspect about thinking of the future that has more of an ethical or moral character to it. And it is that, I suspect, that lies behind Professor Muin-ud-din’s insistence that we focus on the future, even a hundred years into the future. If we think that human beings have some degree of free will, if we think that we do have some capacity for making choices, then moral or ethical issues come into play. What should we want the future to be like? What should we decide to do now to make the desired future more likely to eventuate? From this perspective, dealing with the future, at least the near future and the local future that will likely affect us and that we can expect to affect most forcefully, takes on a moral quality. What kind of human condition would we hope to see prevail? What are likely to be the results of our decisions and actions? Even those of us with minimal scope for influencing the actions of others and those of us with minimal education and access to global knowledge, may expect to influence how our children grow and live and exert their own influence some decades into the future.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Bookman Old Style'; font-size: small;">For those who have access to education and specialized knowledge in areas of global significance the scope for informed guessing about the future, and not just the temporally and locally immediate future, is greater and so is the moral onus to use that knowledge constructively to guide themselves and others in preparing for the future. Much the same and even may be said for those holding the levers of power and influence in national and international organizations: governments, financial institutions, major religious communities etc. It their cases the onus is to become informed as best they can about probable future developments or scenarios and then to take constructive action so as to preparewell for the anticipated, though not necessarily certain or guaranteed, future.</span><span style="font-size: small;">3</span><span style="font-family: 'Bookman Old Style'; font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"> When it comes to natural processes, like depleting natural resources and global warming, it may be possible to predict with some degree of certainty what conditions will be like at a particular time in the future. Based on that knowledge certain responsible decisions may be made to prepare people for the future condition even if that condition itself cannot be altered. When it comes to the impact of human activities on the natural environment, however, there is scope for human intervention and influence and here especially there is both opportunity and obligation for those in positions national and international leadership to inform themselves as best they can about the scope for human intervention. They also have the responsibility to organize human intervention to minimize natural disasters and depletions of resources and to maximize new opportunities for restoring the natural environment, whether by nature itself or nature as modified by science, technology and human behavior. Further on in this talk I’ll come back to the matter of potential reciprocal influence: of religion on the natural environment and of the natural environment on religion as we march on through the twenty-first century.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3080178902721588711.post-84277246613341083002010-07-30T23:19:00.003-07:002013-04-25T02:04:02.623-07:00ISLAMIC VALUES AND THE CHALLANGES OF MODERNISM - Late Muhammad Abdul Haq <b><span style="font-size: 13pt;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
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<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Man lives today in an age characterized by an unprecedented intellectual confusion and religious crisis arising out of the fact that the tremendous advance of modern science on a scale hitherto undreamt of and the rise of modern ‘ism’ have caused religious beliefs and established traditions to be seriously questioned. The origin of the Universe, the creation of man and even the existence of God have become vulnerable to grave doubt and arbitrary conjecture. Now religion is being reproached as unscientific and obsolete phenomenon having no relevance in the wider context of modern life. It is being asserted that the reality of God has not been demonstrated nor is demonstrable in reason. Likewise, the nature of posthumous life is unknown and unknowable. </span><br />
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This contemporary decline of religion in general and spectacular rise of modern outlook is not isolated phenomena. They represented a fundamental change of outlook and concept with regard to the nature of man and of the Universe. Ever since the dawn of history, man has lived by religion and religious tradition, because religion is connatural with man. There might have been many abuses, superstitions, deviation and corruption in religious life of man; nevertheless the basic religious faith remained unquestioned. God was still regarded as the absolute lord and the creator of everything; the Devil was the source of all evil. Everything was in its proper place and right relation but the present religious crisis is rapidly becoming worldwide. Formerly religion used to dominate the whole of life, but what is actually happening today throughout the world is that the modern outlook or Modernism is dominating life and goading religion out of life, pushing it into the private sector of life and even stifling it to the point of death. By Modernism we mean here that which is not of Divine origin or that which does not issue from religion or tradition. In fact modernism is what is profoundly anti-religious, anti-traditional, humanistic, scientific, progressive etc. Such a modernistic world-view has already gained an overall ascendancy in the West and is now becoming universal by extending its sway over the rest of the world. </div>
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This Modernism aims at undermining religion and tradition by striking at their roots. It was, in fact, born of the European renaissance, which marked the end of the traditional Christian civilization. The Renaissance initiated the process of an open revolt against God and gradually gave birth to many new-fangled dogmas and ‘isms’ such as Secularism and Marxist communism--all this constitute Modernism. These ‘isms’ seemingly attractive and convincing, are in reality, aberrant representing a straying into errors and illusions, rooted in the shifting ground of conjecture and superficial knowledge. Dazzled by the unprecedented progress of modern science, the scientists tend to accept as ultimate truth only those things that are tied to time, space, matter and senses, they believe that only the material world, the world of phenomena, is truly existent or really real and beyond which nothing exists whatsoever. This is modern materialism, which is a philosophy of anti-wisdom, precisely because it lives on the husk of things and on the surface level of phenomena ignoring their metaphysical root and reality. This is an intellectual superficiality, which shuts its eyes to what constitutes the quintessence of the human condition. </div>
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<b>Religion:<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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With these introductory remarks, we now turn to religion which is exposed to the challenges of Modernism . Religion is as old as humanity itself and essentially it originates from the Divine source. It represents a set of divine guidance revealed to different prophets for guiding mankind to the right path. Its aim is to provide an effective link between man and God. Its primacy and ultimacy in human life are, therefore, undeniable. Despite outward differences and apparent contradictions, all true and revealed religions provide paths or highways leading to the same goal. In fact, every religion is a highway, not an ism or ideology, and a highway exists in terms of its destination. The way that leads nowhere is not a way at all. Since religion is primarily a highway, it must have a starting point as well as a destination. As religion springs from God, so it ends in God. Thus the goal of religion is God Himself. </div>
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Religion has doctrinal, ritual and ethical aspects, which are interlinked and inseparable from one another. This implies that religion is not a purely individual or private affair: it is rather supra individual. Every religion is characterized by three factors - doctrine, rite and ethics–that correspond to three human faculties-intellection, action and volition. This proves that religion neglects and ignores nothing human <sup>1</sup>. It embraces the whole of life, from birth to death, outward and inward. In fact, religion is connatural with man. In Islam, the center or focus of religious consciousness or awareness of Divine Reality is referred to in al-Qur’an as al-fitrah (30: 30), that is, a primordial essence in man, which signifies his unique ability to recognize God as his lord. The celebrated theosophy of Islam al-Ghazzali maintains that every man is born with the consciousness of Divine Unity, a belief which is kneaded, into his fitrah , that is , primodial nature<sup><span style="color: red;">2</span></sup>. The Latin root of the word religion is connected with the idea of binding or attachment. Religion, therefore, denotes a link by which humanity is effectively bound to what is greater than itself, that is, God <sup><span style="color: red;">3</span></sup>. In Islam, the same theme is expressed with the term ‘Aql which means intellect. The root meaning of the term ‘ aql’ is to bind. Now intellect or ‘aql’ is that human faculty which binds man to his origin, that is, God. That is why al-Qur’an over and over again refers to men as one who is endowed with ‘aqal’ i.e. intellect<sup><span style="color: red;">4</span></sup>. This points to a fundamental unity of all true religions. It is man and times that differ, religion at the social level or at the level of law may differ with them, but in its essentials, it is always the same. In this context, a quotation from Schoun seems relevant: “ Just as every color, by its negation of darkness and its affirmation of light, provides the possibility of discovering the ray which makes it visible and of tracing this ray back to its luminous source, so all forms, all symbols, all religions by their negation of error and their affirmation of truth, make it possible to follow the ray of revelation, back to its Divine Source<sup>5</sup>. Al-Qur’an also affirms that fundamental beliefs of religion are universally common to all peoples of Book (<st1:time hour="15" minute="34">3: 34</st1:time>). In fine, religion is the perennial tradition of mankind, because ever since the dawn of history, man has not lived without religion. Only in the present modern age, characterized by the so-called civilized maturity of mankind, that man has started to live without religion.<br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 13pt;">Late Muhammad Abdul Haq<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 13pt;">Islamic History and Culture,<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><st1:place><st1:placetype><span style="font-size: 13pt;">University</span></st1:placetype><span style="font-size: 13pt;"> of </span><st1:placename><span style="font-size: 13pt;">Chittagong</span></st1:placename></st1:place><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<b><st1:place><st1:city><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 13pt;">Chittagong</span></st1:city><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 13pt;">, </span><st1:country-region><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 13pt;">Bangladesh</span></st1:country-region></st1:place></b><br />
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-->Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3080178902721588711.post-31360568405918351842010-06-27T23:26:00.000-07:002013-04-25T02:13:54.737-07:00Secularism and Islamization of Society - A.N.M. Wahidur Rahman<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Much ink has spent both by the Muslims and non-Muslim scholars, particularly sociologist. Islamists, political scientists, dealing with the question of relation between Religion and politics. The traditional, or pre-modern, relationship between religion and politics was one in which the two were closely integrated, one with the other religious beliefs and practices entered into the heart of political process, supporting and sustaining the exercise of power. Political concerns also, on the other hand extended throughout the religious sphere. The two formed, in effect, one co-terminus set of beliefs and actions it was a system in which social and political life was touched at virtually all points by religious consideration</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. In that period Divine regulations govern economic behavior and ecclesial centers frequently wield extensive economic power. Above all, government is sacral. Religion and government, the two major society wide institutions of social control form on integrated religio-polical system</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. This pattern applied to Buddhist, Hindu and Islamic societies. In the medieval West, it was a basic feature wherever the Roman Catholic Church was in ascendancy.</span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The key factor lay in whether religious authority and political authority was exercised by the same leadership or by distinct leaders. The former we can call as ‘organic model’ and the second we can call in Christian Western sense ‘church-state model’. In the modern world, however, the situation is generally much changed due to the modernisation and its associate process of secularization, to which we shall return shortly. Here it is suffice to say that steel the echo of intergraded or ‘organic model’ can be found in contemporary patterns and assumptions. On </span></span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Britain</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">, for example, the monarch is still technically both head of state-the political sphere-and supreme Governor of the established Church of </span></span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">England</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. And in relatively traditional </span></span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Nepal</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">, King Birendra is, still seen as an incarnation of Hindu god Bishnu by the more traditional sectors of society. Present day </span></span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Saudi Arabia</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> and </span></span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Iran</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> retains the centrality of this religious element in their state affairs: There are no secular constitutions. The basis of legal systems is the Shari’ah, derived from the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (s). In Afghanistan Taliban Government is striving to achieve that end. </span></span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Pakistan</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> which came into existence on the plea of establishing an <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Islamic state and implementation of Shari’ah, it has not yet succeed to materialize it fully due to secularist-conservative entanglement in the political process of </span></span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Pakistan</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. Here in this connection it should be mentioned that in Islam it does not matter ‘who’ rules the country, but it does matter ‘how’ it is ruled, whether it is ruled according to the Shari’ah or not.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The key factor to hamper the process of Islamization or society is the secularism, imported from the western social structure or the ‘church-state model”. The key rule played in the secularization of Muslims majority states of the world, are modernist who tried to distinguish between Din and shari’ah, essential and non-essential, sacred and profane, universal and particular, aspects of islam. Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan and his </span></span><st1:place><st1:placename><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Alighar</span></span></st1:placename><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span><st1:placetype><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">School</span></span></st1:placetype></st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> in </span></span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">India</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> and Muhammad Abdullah in the </span></span><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Middle East</span></span></st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> are regarded as the initiator of Islamic Modernism. Without specially mentioning the secularism as the state policy, they tried to reform the medieval Islamic law and to interpret the Qur’an and Sunnah in Such a way that Sir Sayyid and Abduh became according to some scholars, the champion supporter of secularist doctrine and policy.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">It is to be noted that as a concept it is somewhat controversial, being viewed by some as anti-religious (La dini) and some by neutral and still some as being indifferent to the role of religion in social life. Looking at its etymological dictionary meaning it is evidenced that it was basically anti religious movement, if we call it a movement. Oxford Advanced Learners dictionary defined secularism as “the belief that laws, education etc. should be based on facts, science etc, rather that on religion”. Hence secularization means, According to the above dictionary, “To remove something from control of the church or religion”.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Eric S. Wterhouse in an article entitled ‘Secularism’, which he contributed, to the Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics defined secularism as “a movement, internationally ethical, negatively religious, with political and philosophical antecedents”. He further wrote, “ Since it undertook to do this without reference to a Deity or a future life, and thus proposed to fulfill a function of religions, apart from religious association, it may be regarded as negatively religious”. He further says that “it inherited the inevitable defects-the tendency to destructive rather that constructive action, the wrapping influence of heated feeling, the limited outlook and the negativism”. It has prejudice against religious implications of life and conduct. According to him, it was the British utilitarianism who were philosophically the sponsors of secularism. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Secularism owes its name and in large measures its existence to the life and labors of George Jacob Holyoake (b.1817) who coined the term in 1850 from Bradlaugh, who along with Charles Watts, G.W. Foote and other atheists were identified with secular movement. Secularism is wholly unconcerned with the theological world and tilt interpretation. Hence, historically “secularism has been intermingled with atheism throughout its course”. Though Hoyoake tried to compromise between theism and atheism, Bradlaugh “considered that secularism was bound to contest theistic belief and that material progress was impossible to long as superstition so powerfully manifested itself. Bradlaugh holds that the attempt to ignore rather that denies religion is impractical, because religion embraces both secular and spiritual concerns. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The author of the article said, “it is an impossible proportion to maintain that there may be a God, but that he does not concern material existence”. He argues that one who believes in God, “it will be sufficiently incontinently inconsistent to neglect the implication of his belief upon conduct”. He opined, “it is for this reason that a secularism which does not include a definitely anti-religious theory is bound to fail”, Now he came to the conclusion that: <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">For this reason it does not seem apparent that secularism is destined to survive as a theory of life and conduct, and must be regarded as a movement arising out of, and passing with, the condition of its time. Whiles its ethical aims were honorable, it lacks an adequate basis upon which to establish itself as a permanent feature of human thought</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">During its hundred and fifty years of development, the term secularism has taken different facet and meanings </span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. Some sense of its multi-dimensional use can be traced if we distinguish some of its constituent parts as delineated by K. Dobbelelaere:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">1.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">“Constitutional secularization: the process whereby the official character and goals of the stage cease to be defined kin religious terms”.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">2.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">“Policy Secularization: the process whereby the state ceases to regular society on the basis of religious criteria, and expands the policy domains and specific provision of the state into areas previously the reserve of the religious sphere”.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">3.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">“Institutional Secularization: the process whereby religious structures lose their political saliency and influence as pressures groups, parties, and movements”. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">4.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">“Agenda Secularization: the process whereby, issues, needs and problems deemed relevant to political process cease to have overtly religious content, and whereby solutions developed to resolve those issues are no logons developed to resolve those issues are no lounge constructed on the basis of religious principles”.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">5.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Ideological secularization: the process whereby the basic values and belief systems used to evaluate the political reels and to give it meaning case to be couched in religious terms</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">5</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">”. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">When the political power reformulates its power in new (secular) terms and religious leaders defines and constructs their new and somewhat different relationship with society and the state, it creates tension in the society. Amidst this tension there arises three models of polity as proposed by K. Modhurst in an article entitled “Religion & Politics: A Typology”, Contributed to Scotish Journal of Religious Studies (1981). The first he calls “ The confessional polity” where political leaders continue to legitimize their rule in religious terms; equally, religious leaders mobilize support against threats to their communal hegemony. Colombia and Iran and some respects Ireland too offered as contemporary examples.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">A further pattern arises when secularization removes religion as the major basis of the political system and the state comes to view the forces of religion as just one group among, many contesting for power. Medhurst calls this pattern as “religiously neutral polity”. Here religious groups or parties become pressure to defend and promote their interest, i.e., religion.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Medhurst final model is the “anti-religious polity”. This represents and activity on the part of the state to eliminate any religious presence within political arena. Albenia is an example of this model. Here in this model society and polity were to be reconstructed without any religious institutions, symbols of practice. Commenting on this model Dr. Moyeser wrote:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Yet these various attempts to eliminate religion have failed. Indeed, in some instances, political oppression seems to have the opposite of the intended effect.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Even in liberal-democratic politics, he says, it is by no means clear that religion and politics to continue to lose mutual relevance. Hadden and shape go so far as to purpose a cyclical theory of secularization in which the process of removing religion from society contains the seeds whereby religion is eventually revived and revitalized</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">6</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. They say that this worldly, secularized answers to the meaning and purpose of life are alienating and unsatisfying Reviewing the country studies of Europe, Africa, U.S.A. and Asia which were made by different scholars of religion and politics, George Moyser came to this conclusion that,<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In short, the age of anti-religious polity is largely dead in Europe. A new age, in which religion can once again operate as a relatively legitimate political force, seems to have dawned</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">7</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">About Middle Eastern countries, </span></span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">India</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">, </span></span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Egypt</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> as well as many other African countries, and the </span></span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">United States</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">, he says that studies reveals the fact that a theistic and secularized state socialism have largely collapsed. Religion continues to play a very powerful role in all countries of the world, particularly in Islamic world. About India he comments that “ All in All, Indian politics will no doubt continue to be heavily influenced by religion as the country moves forward through the myriad problems of social and economic and cultural change”</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">8</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. Now let us turn to the problem of Islamization. What is meant by Islamization,’ What is method? What is real impediment to thepath of Islamization? What is its remedy at the present jucture of our history? These are the questions we are supposed to answer if we like to do some justice to this paper. But the span of the paper will not allow us to go into the details. However, we shall try to present the issue in a headline manner to provoke the discussion from the learned audience and participants present here in this august occasion.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Islamization means </span></span><b><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">three</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> things:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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</span> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">I.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">To implement the Islamic laws and values, as thought by the Qur’an and Sunnah, into the society. In a word, implementation of the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Shari’ah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> into the social milieu.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">II.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">To Implement the Islamic values to the new and new issues and situations arising out of encroachment of Western institution and values into our society. Here Islamization of society means the implementation of Islamic social values into the non-Islamic structure of the society. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">III.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Abolition of those practices and institutions from the society, which are unIslamic.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">It is, therefore, needless to say about Islamization about society where the Islamic values are already in operation and are in practice, such as in Iran and Saudi Arabia. Hence implementation of Islamic values are required where there is no practice of Islamic value at all or where some institutions and practices are Islamic and some are not. The last alternative is the fact for the most countries for the Muslim world. Since in this age of modern method of mass communication of mass media, non-Islamic cultures and practices constantly pouring our territory, this is the time to remain constantly on guard against this encroachment of alien cultures, practices and values. But it is almost impossible to deter this flow of cultural encroachment unless the heads of states take the initiative. Here lies the reason for inevitable necessity for the formation of an Islamic state. In this age of democracy, making of a state Islamically founded is an impossible task unless Muslims are majority and they desire to make it so. And the creation of this desire to live Islamically is the function of Da’wah. In order to set mankind on the right path and provide a positive orientation in the present morass, we must rediscover real Islam, which is correctly ever present in the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet. To create a religiously based social order is not an easy task, and human history knows how difficult it is and how perennial a desideratum. Islam is a practical remedy for human ailment and a recipe for how man may transcend his banalities and create a positive human brotherhood. The factors that stood in the path of creating this viable social order are many. Let us mention below a few key factors. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">1. The first and foremost factors are secularism: A Muslim as a Muslim <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> cannot believe in secularism. In any one of the meanings mentioned above, Islam is incompatible with secularism. No Muslim who believes in an Al-Mighty God can consistently say that for a good part of my action is not concern of God. No Muslim can say at the same time that I am a Muslim and I want to remove the religion from the society. Akber S. Ahmed may be quoted in this connection:</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> ‘Secular’ and ‘Muslim’ are by definition incompatible as any dictionary <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> will confirm. There can be no Muslim without God-just as there can be <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> no Christianity without Christ, Buddhism without Buddha, Marxism <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> without Marx</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">9</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">2.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Lack of proper Knowledge of Islam: From the beginning until the Western colonialism-which began to extend its grasp throughout the world since the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, ‘Ulama (fuqaha, Muhadditun, and Mufassirin) were the torchbearers of Islamic science and technologies. But those glorious days of Muslim history turned backward when Muslims became very much involved in power mongering forgetting the real source of power-knowledge and </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">hikmah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> (science and technological know-how).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">3.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Introduction of Western liberal/secular education: The Muslim society unreceptively adopted the western liberal education without giving due weight to the teaching of the Qur’an and Sunnah.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">4.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Material Prosperity of the West: Some modernist Muslim became fascinated to the western way of thought and action by seeing the material prosperity of the west particularly after the renaissance</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">10</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. (a team which, I think, should not be applied to term is, according to some thinkers, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">nahda</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> which literally means the actualization of the potentialities latent in the child. Hence Islamically it means to actualize all potentialities latent in Islam into the society). The renaissance of the west was characterized with the same ultimate principle, which inspired Greco-Roman antiquity, namely, the man is the humanistic. This humanism dethroned the god of Christianity and replaces him with man. Although the main élan of Islam is also humanistic but this humanism is guided by God not by man. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">5.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Muslim reluctance to knowledge: Knowledge is a lost treasure of the Muslims. They are asked to pick it up where ever it is to be found. Muslim reluctance came in the walk of western imperialist power when it intruded into the Muslim society. A good number of ‘ulama’ considered the European language and technology as un-Islamic, as it comes from those Christians who are very much critical of Islamic institutions and practices. Then some ‘Ulama’ such as Deobandis, decided to remain aloof from the European contact. But the Madrasha education they sponsored, lacked modern education. Hence in the long run Muslim became ignorant of their own heritage and high days, and their education became ineffective for the Muslim society. If Muslim are to survive as a nation as an Ummah, they will have to devote their full energies and capacities to cope with the western technological progress, but not at the expense of their own faith.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">6.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Heads of the states are not the Ulama and experts of the Shari’ah but the secularist and liberal minded Muslims: It is said that Modernist Muslims are inclined to the west by attraction and the conservative by repulsion. Those Muslim who acqui5ed a good knowledge of western education they became the heads of the state, administration; judiciary etc. Then they naturally become reluctant to do the job implementation Shari’ah, abolition of non-Islamic practices and institutions etc. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">7.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Conservative-modernist, or orthodox-liberal disputes: In Muslim society though the Ulama still control much of the public opinion, they are unable to face the western educated liberal minded Muslims who became the leaders of the society and tries to implement western values into the society; but ‘Ulama tries to resist this attempt. As a result, the dispute arises between the two groups; the dispute often leads to clash. Consequently lay Muslims become confused as to which course they should follow.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">8.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Long western antipathy and hatred towards Islam: It created a psychological barrier in the way of Islamization of society. The western scholars are very much critical of medieval Islamic way of thoughts and practices. This has increased considerably by the technological development of media network. However some western scholars now realized that the propaganda changed little Muslim attitude towards the west, and they now begin to show some respect to the Muslim perception of their religion, though the basic premises of the west still remain unchanged.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">9.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Muslim’s lack of respect to his own religion. This state of affairs became the best argument for the western materialistic world against Islam: Some Muslims became very much critical of Islam and began to question the very basic tents to Islam. For example, Salman Rushdie’s Satanic Verses arose a huge controversy throughout the world and some radical Muslims also took his side and argued in his favour. This has increased embarrassment among the Muslims.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">10.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Lack of good moral character (Hosne Khulq)’ among the state leaders of the Muslim world: Most of the leaders who are Muslims and act as the head of the state or the institutions are lacked of Islamic character. So those who work under such leaders do not feel obliged to lead an Islamic way of life.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">11.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Muslims against the Muslims: Western democracy and liberalism created a system, which has scope to set a Muslim against Muslims.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">12.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Christian missionary from the very early had spread a network throughout the Muslim world to convert the Muslims into Christianity. It is still working in the guise of N.G.Os and humanitarian activities in the third world countries. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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</span> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Now the questions remain to be answered are (i) How to mitigate or remove these problem mentioned above? And (ii) how to start the Islamization process? There is no easy way to answer these questions. However, I would like to say that according to the Qur’an the virtue are coeval. They exist side by side. When Allah (Subahanahu a ta’la) created Adam as vicegerent of the earth, he also created a Satan and gave Satan on his request to continue his evil doings until the day of judgment</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">11</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. Allah granting of this facility to Satan means that men will never be able to free the society from the evil forces and secret of virtue lies in the struggle against the vices. That is why the institution of </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Jihad</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> also will continue until the Day of Judgment, as the prophet says. If not ‘Jihad with sword’, which according to some thinkers, is only permitted on the condition of aggression, but </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Jihad</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> with the evil forces will continue forever. And this must be accompanied with the proper knowledge of </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Din</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> and </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Dunia </span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">(the world). We know that God established the superiority of man over other forces of the world in respect of knowledge. Knowledge is the pre-requisite for establishing a God fearing </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">(Taqwa)</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> and humanitarian society. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">As to the second question, we have a model sanctioned by the Qur’an: “Call to the path of your lord with wisdom (scientific knowledge) and with good moral counseling”. This is the basic method of “Da’wah”. The combination of the two is absolutely necessary for establishing Allah’s rule on earth. But due to the bifurcation between the two in our systems and the present day Madrasha education represents the second” (good moral counseling). That is why both are unable to guide to the path of Allah. The perfect model is the combination of the two mentioned by the Qur’an. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Some leading thinkers of the Muslim world also suggested some method for the Islamization of society. For example, Hasan al-Banna, the pioneer leader of the Ikhwan al-Muslimun or </span></span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Egypt</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">, in his Risalat al-Ta’leem suggested two methods which he called maratib al-‘amal (the level of work) and Marahil al-‘amal (the stages of work). As to the stages of work he proposed seven basic stages for the revival of Muslims and establishing an Islamic society.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">1.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">To reform oneself.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">2.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">To reform one’s own family.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">3.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">To reform society.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">4.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">To free society politically</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">12</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">5.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">To establish Islamic Government.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">6.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">To re-establish Muslim </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Ummah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> and to revive </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Khalifah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">, and finally.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">7.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">To lead the world and to carry the responsibility or guiding it to the path of Allah. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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</span> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">As to the level of works he emphasized that Muslim must be well-equipped with the knowledge and faith and to be ready to sacrifice one’s life in the path of Allah. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Another model of Islamization of society was offered by the Turkish outstanding scholar Bediuzzaman Sa’id Nursi(1873-1960). His lifer struggle became a legend for the Muslims of Turkey</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">13</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. In his Risala-I-Nur “he attempts to cure the collective hearts, the public opinion, and the general conscience that have been subverted by corruptive tools accumulated and stored up for thousand years, using in the cure, the drugs and the remedies of the Qur’an and faith” </span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">14.</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> The basic ingredients of the Nursi model are: <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">1.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">To cure weakness of Iman (faith) and development of individual conscience. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">2.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Islamic work must be done with group approach.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">3.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Unity (a) among Muslim individuals, (b) Among Muslim states, (c) a common fronts with other believers against the enemies the enemies of believers. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Bediuzzaman emphasized that in the present age, unbelief is much more common and attempts are being made to drive people away from religion by the misguidance of technology and science. According to him, it is therefore, necessary to study science from a religious point of view and to study religious from scientific point of view. In other words, he advises us to combine religious and modern science together and study them fully.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Another outstanding scholar of this subcontinent, Mawlana Abu al-‘Ala Mawdudi, who was considered by some Islamic scholars as a ‘Mujaddid’ (renewal of the Shari’ah), said that the main aim of the prophetic mission was the establishment of God’s sovereignty on earth. His analysis of the contemporary situation is that the Muslim society has gradually drifted away from the ideal pattern established by the Prophet and developed on the same line during the period of the Khulfa-I-Rashideen. He says that the first important change in the social body of Islam was the transformation of Khalifah to monarchy. This brought grave change to weaken and consciously or unconsciously a separation between religion and politics began to take place (Secularism finds its way to Islam).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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</span> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The second major change was in the system of education. This process culminated when Muslim succumbed to the colonial power of the west. During this period an alien system was imposed. Because of this new system of education separation of religion and politics became almost in integral part of Muslim society. In the post-independent phase, the new leadership of the Muslim countries has generally gone into the hands of those people who are product of the colonial system of education. The Muslim countries were begun to be led by those people who have much respect for western values. Its consequence was inevitable –the beginning of politico-ideological rift in Muslim society. Hence, according to Mawdudi, only remedy to this secularist situation is to revive the pattern of ‘</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Khulafa-I-Rashidun’, </span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">which was a perfect manifestation of the perfect manifestation of the prophetic mission.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Now I would like to make some personal observation. I have argued that the greatest impediment to the Islamization of society is secularism. I have tried to show that secularism in any meaning or facets is incompatible with Islam. I have tried to show that secularism in any meaning of facets is incompatible with Islam. Islam is a complete code of life. There is no distinction between public and private morality. There is nothing private or exclusively private matter in Islam. For everything done or believed man are responsible to God. To Muhammad (s) religious life was not a part time thing. Every ‘</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Ibadah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> has social implication and every social matter has religious to perform it in congregation, it places emphasis on increasing brotherhood and fellow feeling among the Muslims. Above all, the Qur’an says, prayer prohibits you from adultery, reprehensible action and injustice. (Q.29: 45)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Likewise distribution of Zakah among the prescribed personal and the association of Fasting in the month of Ramadan with Sadaqat al-Fitra, and the institution of Hajj and the distribution of the meat of the sacrificed animal, all have deepest social implication. That is the lord of the world”. (Q, 6:162) Moreover, there is no more personal thing than one’s own body and life. You have eyes but you cannot look to a foreign woman with ill motive; you have hands but you cannot beat any one as you like; you have legs but you cannot enter into anybody’s home without his prior permission. Your life is more personal then anything else, but you cannot kill yourself. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">I may quote now from a Christian scholar, who says,<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The struggle between religion and state that marked western development did not appear in the Islamic world, partly because no church in the western sense developed, and partly because so much of the law that was applied was religious law…The ideal becomes not the separation of religion and state, but the unification of religion and state”</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">15</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">I may conclude my paper by saying that though secularism was the outcome of some historical situation, it could not fulfill total human aspiration. Moreover, it had shown a serious crack in solving the moral problems. The weakness of secularism is the strengths for conservation which believes in the unity of divine and mundane. Lawlessness is, at present, the obverse of free secular democracy, as we are experiencing in </span></span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Bangladesh</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. The truth is that western civilization is a giant now fully corroded from within. Christianity was a spiritual force until the recent centuries, and it is the Christian West who sponsored secularism, which is turn, devastatingly damaged the spirituality of Christianity itself. This situation reminds us of a verse from a Persian poet.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The wonder is not so much that you posses the <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Miraculous art of healing like Jesus;<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<h4>
<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The wonder is rather that your patient is even</span></span></h4>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">More sick than before</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">16</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">1. G. Moyser Politics and Religion in the Modern World (ed. George Moyser London: Routledge, 1991) p. 12.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">2.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">D. E. Smith, ‘Religion and political Development (Boston; little Brown, 1970) p.6.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">3.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Eric S. Waterhouse, “Secularism”, Encyclopedia of religion and Ethics, 1949, pp.348-350.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">4.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">See k. Dobbelacre, “Secularization: A Multi dimensional Concept.”. Current Sociology 29, vol. 1 (1981) pp. 11-12.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">5.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">George Moyser, “Politics and Religion in the modern World: an overview”, in Politics and </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">religion in the Modern World</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">, pp. 14-15.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">6.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">J. K. Hadden and A. Shupe, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Prophetic Religions and Politics: Religion:</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> Religion and political order (</span></span><st1:state><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">New york</span></span></st1:place></st1:state><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">: Paragon House (1986), p.XV</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></i></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">7.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> G. Moyser, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Religion and Politics in the Modern World</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">, p.18.</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></i></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">8.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Ibid.pp.19-23</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></i></div>
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</span> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">References</span></span></b><b><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">1.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Akbar S. Ahmed, Post Modernism and Islam (London: Routledge, 1991), P. 320.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">2.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan once in a letter from </span></span><st1:city><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">London</span></span></st1:place></st1:city><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> to Muhsin al-Mulk, attributed the Indian peoples as dirty animals as compared to the Western Whitman.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">3.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">See the Qur’an: </span></span><st1:time hour="19" minute="14"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">7: 14</span></span></st1:time><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">-17; </span></span><st1:time hour="15" minute="36"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">15: 36</span></span></st1:time><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">-39 and 38: 79-82. The repletion of same theme in three places in the Qur’an indicates the importance of this human situation in the eyes of the Qur’an.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">4.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">He wrote the book when </span></span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Egypt</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> was still under the foreign occupation.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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</span> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">5.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Bediuzzaman Sa’id Nursi was born in </span></span><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Anatolia</span></span></st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> in 1873. From the beginning of his life he was a devout Muslim. In World War I, Bediuzzaman Sa’id Nursi served as the commander of a volunteers’ regiment in the Caucasian front and in </span></span><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Eastern Anatolia</span></span></st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. The heroism he demonstrated in the battles was highly admired by the generals of the Ottoman Army. The Signs of Miraculousness (Isharat ul-I’jaz), which received immense appreciation from eminent scholars, was written during the war on horseback, front line and trench. In one of those battles against the invading Russian forces, Bediuzzaman and ninety other otured, He was sent to prisoners’ camp in </span></span><st1:city><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Kostroma</span></span></st1:place></st1:city><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">, </span></span><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Northwestern Russia</span></span></st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. One day the Russian Nicola Nicolaevich, commander-in-chief of the Caucasian front and uncle of the Czar, came to the camp for inspection. Bediuzzaman did not stand up before the general. When asked, Bediuzzman explained the reason in this words; “ I am a Muslim scholar and have belief in my heart. Whoever has belief in his heart is superior to the one who does not. I cannot act against my belief”. He was court-martialed, sentences to death, and, when the sentence was to be executed, he began his last duty, prayer, before the shooting squad. The general witnessing the scene, was deeply impressed, and came to Bediuzzaman, this time with an apology. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">6.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">S. Kurter O’ Berge, “Bediuzzaman’s Model for Islamic Renaissance”, in Al-Ittihad 15 (October 1978) P.36.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">7.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Freeland Abbott, “</span></span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Pakistan</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> and the </span></span><st1:place><st1:placename><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Secular</span></span></st1:placename><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span><st1:placetype><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">State</span></span></st1:placetype></st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">”, in South Asian Politics and Religion, ed. D.E. Smith (Princeton: University Press, 1966) p.359.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">8.</span></span><span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Quoted by Fazlur Rahman, “Islamic Challenge and Opportunities”, in Islam: Post Influence and Present Challenge, Ed. By A. Welch and Picrre Caches, (New York: State University of N.Y. Press, 1979), P.330.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Late A.N.M. Wahidur Rahman</span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"></span>Department of Philosophy, </span></span><st1:placetype><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">University</span></span></st1:placetype><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> of </span></span><st1:placename><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Chittagong</span></span></st1:placename></div>
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<o:p><b><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">source:</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span></span></o:p><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">A. Farid and N. A. Khan (eds.) 2008. </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">21</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">st</span></span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> Century Challenges</span></span></i></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i></i></span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">For The Global Muslim Community</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">, Renaissance Foundation for</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Human Resource Management. (RFHRM), Dhaka</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Website: </span></span><a href="http://www.renaissancefoundationbd.org/"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">www.renaissancefoundationbd.org</span></span></a></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3080178902721588711.post-2946201231261232272010-06-15T10:11:00.000-07:002010-06-17T03:21:37.739-07:00Rules of Definition<div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">T</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">he following rules have been traditionally laid down by logician;</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span> </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1. The Definition should be </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">coextensive</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> with the thing defined. The Definition should neither be broader than the </span><a href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/definiendum"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">definiendum</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> so as to include any other object, nor should it be narrower so as to exclude parts of the defined object. This is what classical scholars mean when they refer to a Definition as a "comprehensive but exclusive term".</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span> </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">2. A Definition should state the essential attributes of the species.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span> </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">3. A Definition must not be circular. That is, it should not define by synonyms and antonyms, </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">e.g.</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> defining a parent as the person who has a child.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span> </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">4. A Definition must not be expressed in ambiguous, obscure, or metaphorical terms.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span> </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">5. A Definition should not be negative where it can be affirmative.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Source: </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Copi"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Irving M. </span></span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Copi"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Copi</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">, Introduction to Logic.</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3080178902721588711.post-40692961944895560142010-06-01T21:25:00.000-07:002010-06-27T23:31:20.640-07:00Hazrat Imam Hasan al-Basri (r): A Brief Introduction to his Doctrine of choice:<div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;"><st1:place><st1:city><b>Dr.</b></st1:city><b> </b><st1:state><b>Md.</b></st1:state></st1:place><b> Bodiur Rahman</b></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoBodyText3"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoBodyText3"><span style="font-size: 13pt;">A. A BRIEF IDEA OF THE PROBLEM OF THE FREEDOM OF CHOICE<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The religion of Islam teaches man to believe in the unity of ‘Allah who is Omnipotent and merciful, but also stated to be perfectly good and just. He commands people of this earth for the attainment of good, prohibits from performing the evil and promises to give reward for obedience to His command and threatens to punish for disobedience. In the system of Islamic ethics, these promise and threat for reward and punishment entails the accountability of human action in this earthly life. The accountability of human actions emphasized again and again in the Qur’an implies that human being is free to choose between obedience and disobedience while performing an action.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">But the problem crops up when the responsibility of men for their own actions is considered inadmissible by a section of people who takes omnipotence to mean that ‘Allah is the sole Active Agent in te Universe. The problems takes a more difficult turn when some other verses in the Holy Writ are understood to mean that ‘Allah as the sole Active Agent in the Universe leads to gross misunderstanding of the intends to Holy Qur’an in introducing him as the <u>Qadir</u> (omnipotent) and by implication to searching out imaginary contradiction in the Qur’an and ‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ahadith’</i><u>. <o:p></o:p></u></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">But they one who approaches the Qur’an with open mind and rational attitude and considered the situations and circumstances which its verses were revealed, will agree that this so-called contradictory position of believing or disbelieving by oneself or made to be believe or dishbelieve by ‘Allah does not apply there as the Qur’an contains so many clear and weighty verses expressing the truth that very individual will have to account on the day of judgment for action which he is responsible.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">According to most scholars who discussed the Qur’anic and the prophetic religious thought, the theme of the verses are revealed in al-Madina was either the unity of ‘Allah or the Final judgment of all mankind. But it is conceded by all that the chief topic of the meccan revelation was the general resurrection with its attendant judgment.<sup>1</sup> Why is this judgment actions in the day of resurrection so much emphasized in the book and the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sunnah</i> if the meaningful purpose of life as expressed in the Qur’an is not realizable by means of deliberation and choice?<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The prophet observed that his countrymen were spending their time in a narrow round of hopes and fears, ambitions and desires with closed minds to any other view of life or goal of action. They were totally indifferent to any future except that which this mundane earth and its transient pleasers offered. These people in reply to the message of hopes and aspirations for both this and the future life said, “ There is no life beyond our present life. We die and we live; and we shall not be quickened again”.<sup>2 </sup>It has its prallel in other places in the Qur’an’. “ It is He who hath caused you to be born on the earth; into Him shall yet be gathered………….But they (Pagan Arab) say, as said those of lod; they say, what! When we shall be dead and have become dust and bones, shall we, indeed be waked to life? This have we been promised, we and our fathers afore-time; but it is only fables of the acncients”.<sup>3</sup> “These people”, says ‘Allah in other place of the Qur’an, “Love the fleeting present and leave behind them the heavy day of doom”.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Such attitude of the pre-Islamic Arabs implies the idea that their religious thought became crystallized of fossilized in a few beliefs and practices with a view to attaining certain ends in this life. But this thought also admitted a final termination ot all human hopes, expectations or fears and they never dreamt of a future life. People saw life as a round of well-known, inescapable and unpredictable chain of events, leading from the cable to the grave. In this way these people directed all there energies towards success in this life as their fathers had defined success and sought it. The pre Islamic poets choose two terms, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qada</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i> mostly to expressed this attitude of life which was assumed to be utterly “fatalistic” and confined mostly in the context of this world. Such gross “fatalism” expressed through <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qada. Qadar</i> and some other terms made those people totally pressimist and hopeless about any opening of life or the future happier or blessed life.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">But in the Qur’an it is observed that this short of hoplessness about life after death or the fatalistic notion of life is disproved in various ways. The term <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qada</i> in the Qur’an has been given a new significance and meaning equivalent to “decree” or judgment (or “Ordinance”). But the term <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i> that was taken in pre-Islamic days vitally to express “fatalism” has been given quite a new meaning and significance in order to make those people feel free form the riddle of fatalism and those to awaken in them new aspirations of life. Ascribing predestination with reference to this term <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar </i>is denied in the Qur’an and in its palce a new light was shown through the idea of individual endeavor depending upon the “potency” <u>(</u><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">qudrah)</i><sup> 5 </sup>and choice endowed by Allah to man for the attainment of his own salvation or destruction on the Day of Judgment.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">This highlights the purpose of Allah’s creation. The Qur’an expresses that “We have not created the heaven and the earth and what is between them for sport. Had it been our wish to find a pastime, we would have surely found it in ourselves, if to do so had been our will”<sup> <span style="color: teal;">6</span></sup>. In another palce in the Quran it is said “we have not created the Heavens and the Earth and whatever is between them in sport. We have created them for serious end, although most of them do not understand it. Verily the day of serving shall be the appointed time of all”. In order to relaize this end, man has been admonished and shown their obligation when Allah says in the Quran, “set thou thy face, then has a Hanif (Sincere Devotee), towards the faith `Allah has made, and for which He has made man<sup>8</sup>”…… “Verily we have made all that is on earth as its adornment that we might make a trial as to who among mankind would excel in works<sup>9</sup>”. Allah assures man reward for trial like this if he comes out successful awards punishment in case of failure. So he say, “In all truth Allah has created the Heavens and the Earth that He may reward everyone as he shall have wrought: and they shall not be wronged”<sup>10</sup>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">In all these verses as in hundreds of others which we would quote in course of our discussion (In the second chapter), the life’s riddle finds a solution through this solemn conviction that this world and human beings have been created for a just and worthy end and the whole nature too is directed towards that goal. But the meaningful and worthy end of the creation of `Allah was the revealation of Allah’s will concerning man; it especially lies in the method of Allah’s testing of man in this transient life in view of his destiny in an ever lasting one. The life of this world may be compared as play and pass time with that of the next world; but it is also real and has its solemn and sobering climax, when human actions here and now would bear their proper fruit. Because here in this world human hearts and choices are tried and Wight against a future of eternal blessedness or endless damnetion, where happienes or perdition is a consequent of mans belief or unbelief in `Allah and dependent upon his obedience or dishobedient to his command.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The above significant purpose of life which awakens wonderful aspirations for open future and saves man from the pitfall and riddle of life, entails the truth that he will not have to remain confined within the narrow and dark span of mundane life, but before him, there is a straight path and vast field of activity which he himself will have to select and pursue and be rewarded or demand forever. It signifies the clear idea or “Choice” which an individual will have to make between belief and unbelief, between good or evil actions and be treated accordingly by `Allah on the Day of Judgment. He awakens and strengthens this consciousness further when he says, “Shall we treat those who propagate evil on earth? Shall we treat the `Allah- fearing like the impious”? Man is further urged to understand that, “No burdened soul shall bear the burdens of another and that nothing shall be reckoned to a a man but for which he hath made efforts and that his efforts shall at least be seen, that then he shall be recompensed with a most recompense”<sup>12</sup>. “ He who doth right, it is for himself and he doth evil, it is for himself and thy lord will not deal unfairly with his servants<sup>13</sup> . The most clear verse describing ‘choice’ or ‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u>Ikhtiyar</u></i>’ of man among hundreds which we have quoted and explained in course of our discussion (in ch.II ) is 42:19, who so will choose the harvest field of the life to come, to him shall we give increase in this his harvest field. But whose chooses the harvest of this life, thereof shall we give him; but no portion will therebe for him in the life to come<sup>14</sup>, The two high ways of good and evil or in other words the obedience or disobedience to `Allah by man’s owns choice is also plainly shown so that man may choose and follow either, what: have we not made (for) him eyes and tongue and lips and guided him to the high ways”?<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 171.0pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 171.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The fundamental Qur’anic assumption leaves no doubt to the idea that man has been set free to choose between those ways or choose Actions as he likes and performs it on the basis of his potency bestowed on him by Allah. This idea of ‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ikhtiyar<u>’</u> </i>or the freedom of choice, has been choice elaborately (in Chapter two) along the help of direct and indirect verses in the positive as well as negative sense. Supposition this position, one of the modern orientalists has observed in an essay that `Allah…… “has granted man Freedom of Choice and action wherein he may go his own way<sup>16</sup>…….M.S. Seale has also unequivocally argued this position of the Qur’an<sup>17</sup>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">As a matter of fact, the western orientalists have began to see the difference and started to lay overwhelming weight to this idea though the old guard and the conservatives amongst them still insist on interpreting verses without proper context.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">As in the Quran, so also in the mind of the Holy Prophet the idea of ‘Ikhtiyar’ or Choice is distinctive feature of the teaching of Islam. In many <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ahadith</i> the prophet has expressly said it. In his day to day practice, that is in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sunnah</i> of the Prophet, its pattern and prove exists. The prophet idea of choice is discernible also in his repeated arguing upon the people to conduct their life in such manner as he may be rewarded happily in the hereafter. Such the ‘conduct’ implies character, which in term implies responsibility. This point in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sunnah</i> of the prophet would be discussed while explaining the concept of freedom of choice in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hadith </i>(in Chapter three).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">But this unique position was been blackened and ‘predestination’ was being attested to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar </i>by amir Mu’awiya<sup>18</sup> and with few exceptions all his successors with a view to white washing the evil activities committed for graving powers and realizing there selfish ends. Predestination was being preached by the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Umayyad</i> rulers and their followers on the ploy that whatever happens in case of a man, that happens very much as it is irrevocably ‘predestined’ by Allah.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Upholding the idea of predestination in the manner stated above leads a wedge of contradiction to a thinking mind to the effect that if ‘predestination’ as upheld by the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Umyyad</i> rulers, is true, “the idea of freedom of choice” is falls. Similarly if “freedom of choice” is trough as upheld by the Quran and Sunnah ‘predestination’ must be false. But these two concepts can not co-exist in the same scripture and in the Sunnah of the Prophet as “A” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(Ikhtiyar)</i> The opposite of “B” (predestination) denies “B” and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">vice ve</i><u>r</u><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sa </i><u>.</u> This means, if “B” is taken to be true, “A”, the infallible Quaranic truth as explained above is proved false. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The dangerous implication of such a predicament was first realised by al-Hasan al-Basri, the renowned scholar and Tabi’I, who which the Day of Judgment and the accountability of man is intimately connected. He was well aware about the omnipotence <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(Qudra)</i> of Allah and the threat posed by the Umayyads concept of predestination as it is evident from his writing a letter to al-Hasan and with al-Hasan b. Ali’s reply in hand, al-Hasan al-Basri hastened to preach the Quranic idea of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ikhtiyar</i>. He opposed predestination and proved it to be wrongly attributed to Quran and Sunnah. No sooner he did so than he was denounced by his adversaries and they reffered it to Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik whereupon the caliph wrote a letter to al-Hasan requesting him to explain the “unheard of” idea that he had been expressing. Al-Hasan gave a detailed exposition of his idea of the Fredom of choice in a lengthy reply which latterly came to be known as the “Risala” of al-Hasan <sup>19</sup>. This is the text which his conception of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ikhtiyar</i><u> </u>was elaborated. (It would be discussed in chapter fourth, fifth and sixth).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">So far as it is known, the Risala in question is the earliest document dealing systematically with the question of human responsibility of action with the reputation of predestination. His concept of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ikhtiyar</i> of man besides being a projection of Islamic religious apprehension on the domain of philosophy, also seems to be the first serious logical attempt to reconcile the concept of the omnipotence of Allah of the responsibility of actions of man. He upheld the meaning of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i> as the potency of Allah. He said that man has been given <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qudra</i><u>,</u> potency to work according to his own “choice” which has been set “free”. The freedom of choice has been expressed with the help of the word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Takhliya</i> <sup>20</sup>. With reference to about ninety-two verses of the Quran, he explained the concept of the freedom of choice of man and proved with superb logical argumentation, “ The nullity of predestination” which reversely also upholds its idea of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ikhtiyar</i>. As a man of the first century Hijri, he did so without being influenced by any foreign element because infiltration of foreign ideas in the thought construct of the Muslim scholar did not take root. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Hasan’s doctrine of ‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ikhtiyar’</i> calims specility when he says in the risala tht man is responsinle for his actions only to the extent that he “earns’ or “acquires” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(Kasba</i><u>)</u>. Whatever good an individual earns is for him and whatever evil he earns in false in his account and he will be liable for it. Al-Hasans assertion of the idea of ‘earning’ or ‘acquisition’ <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(Kasab)</i> makes him again the ‘initiator’ of the doctrine of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kasb</i> which later on was develop by Dirar ibn `Amr al-Gatfani and the Asharite philosophers which constitutes the subject matter of our eight chapter. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><h3>B. BRIEF LIFE SKETCH OF AL-HASAN AL-BASRI</h3><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">In order to appreciate the unique position of al-Hasan al-Basri as the introducer of the Islamic doctrinal knowledge into the domain of philosophy so as to make the religious concept of the freedom of choice logically under stable to the philosophers and intellectuals of his time, a clear grasp of his life and the socio-political and the intellectual circumstances attending it, is necessary where-for a brief sketch of al-Hasan al-Basri’s life is given below: <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 19.5pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 19.5pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -19.5pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">(1)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Early life in al-Madina<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><h1> <span style="font-size: 12pt;">Abu sa’ad al-Hasan ibn ‘Abi’l Hasan yasar al-Basri, populary known as al-Hasan al-Basri, was born in the household of the prophet(s) in al-Madina in H. 21/642<sup>21</sup>. He was named Hasan by the Caliph ‘Umar b. al-Khattab while brought to him after birth for a name by Umm Salma the celebrated wife of the Holy Prophet<sup>22</sup>. His father was a native of Maisan in al-Basra. Yasar was brought to al-Madina in 14/635. (His father, a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mawla</i>, gained freedom and became attached to Zaid b. Thabit (d.45) as a helper). His mother khaira was engaged in assisting in the household duties of Umm Salma. He was most probably brought up in wadi’l-Qura near al-Madina.<o:p></o:p></span></h1><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">While a child, al-Hasan was very attaractive and dear to every one of the Ahl-Bayt. Al-Hasan b.`Ali (d.49) was his friend. Hadrat Ali taught him first the art of reading. From his very childhood, he received education in the mosque of the prophet(s) in al-Madina. He learnt the Quran by heart and gain special knowledge it later on. He also mastered over the art of writing in his youth in al-Madina and consequently learn pure Arabic. He and his mother later on could eloquently speak in pure Arabic before the public. His mother Khira heard hadith from Umm salma and ‘A’isha (d.58/678) and narrated to her sons, viz., al-Hasan and sa’id, and others. Thus the environs of the Ahl-Bayt exerted great influence on al-Hasan <sup>25</sup>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Hasan received Hadith from numerous distinguished Companions of the prophet (s). He met as many as seventy of those compassions from them. Al-Hasan became so well versed in the Holy Quran on which I have not pondered over and have not found out the aim, circumstances and significant of that verse <sup>26</sup>. This articulated divine knowledge made him the fore-most component of ‘ilmu’l-kalam. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Among the companions of the prophet (s), Anas bin Malik taught him Hadith. He admired al-Hasan’s sense of piety and depth of knowledge <sup>27</sup> in Apostolic Tradition. Another famous Companion with whom he came in contract and had been influenced was ‘Imran b. Husayn al-Khuzi<sup>28</sup>(d.52)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">As far as it is known, al-Hasan having completed his education in al-Madina, went to al-Basra in 37/657. In the war between Caliph ‘Ali and Amir Mu ‘awiya al-Hasan took part in expedtion which was carried in the East. Most probably this war was conducted in the eastern sector of </span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Iran</span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span style="font-size: 12pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 19.5pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 19.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -19.5pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(2)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Socio-political and intellectual environment of</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">al-Basra in the first and early second century Hijri.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> For a proper understanding of his activities in al-Basra, a few words about the socio-political and the intellectual and the intellectual environment that prevailed there at that time is necessary.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">After having camped in 14/635, on the ruins of the old Persian post called by the Arabs al –Khushyba, the companion of the prophet Utba b. Ghazwan chose this location in 17/638 to establish the military camp which was basis of the town al-Basra<sup>29</sup> .<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">At the thresold of its existence, al-Basra provided contingent for the Arab Armies of conquest of the Basrans participated in the war of Nihawand in 21/642. They also took part in the conquest of Istakhar, </span><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Fars</span></st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, Khurasan and sidjistan in 30 H. as al-Basra under the Muslims was a military city along with far-flung conquests. The booty began to flow in and its inhabitants became conscious of their importance. Then the pace of events accelerated that turned it into the first battleground of the Muslims against the Muslims in the battle of Camel in 36/656. Before the fighiting of Basrans were divided in their lawalities and the victory of Ali served to increase the disorders. But on the whole, the population remained more inclind towards Sunni orthodoxy in contrast ot the people of Kufa who sided towards Alids and later on came to be known as shi’i. In side of Hadrat ‘Ali. Al-Hasan came to al-Basra at this stage. In 41/662 Mu’awiya reasserted his authority over the town and sent Ziyad there in 45/665 who may be considered as the chief architect of the prosperity of al-Basra.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Basra was politically divided into five trible areas such as (a) Afil-al-Alya (b) Tamim, (c) Bakr-b. Wa’il, (d) Abd al –Qays al-Basra snd others were observed in the rank of mawali or indigenous population. The local situation agrabated under the rule of the governor ‘Ubayd Allah b. Ziyad. At this death in 64/683 serious disturbance brokeout. Abdullah ibn Zubair later on seized power and kept al-Basra under his control till 72/691. In the succeeding years the primary concern of the Umayyads was to suppress the up risings. The most important of them was the uprising of Ibn Ash’ath in 81/701. A peaceful condition prevailed until the death of Hajjaj in 95/714. Al-Hasan did not participate in this uprising. Another great revolt that took place in 101-2/719-20 was that of the Muhallabids,. The town became a provincial one in the hands of the Abbasids. The antiquities of al-Basra hardly outlived the later revolts anarchy and attacks accepts the buildings of Masjid ‘Ali (r) and the tombs of talha, al-Zubayr, Ibn sirin and the sage al-Hasan al-Basri. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">“</span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Basra</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, in fact, is the vertiable crucible in which Islamic culture assumed its form, crystallized in the classical world between the 1<sup>st</sup> and the 4<sup>th</sup> century Hijri, form 16/637 to 311/923<sup>32</sup>. It was in al-Basra that Arabic Grammar took its origin and made illustrious by Sibawayh and al-Khalil b. Ahmad in particular. Hero in al-Basra it was those scholars such as Abu Amr b. Ala, Abu Ubayd al-Asmai and Abul Hasan al-Madiani who collected verses and historical document which nature the works of the later writers.in the field of poetry, al-Basra can claim the great Umayyad poets and the modernist Bashshar b. Burd and Abu Nunad and it was that town where Arabic prose was born with ibn Mukaffa, Sahl b. Harun and later on al-Jahiz.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The latterly conspicuous religious, philosophical and intellectual grandeur on Basran Society is generally traced back to al-Hasan. When he went to al-Basra in 37/657about the age of nearly 15 years. It had little or no philosophical or intellectual standing, al-Hasan spent 71 years in al-Basra and all movements whether religious or intellectual that flourished there in aked by him.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">As to the intellectual development it is observed from early records that the Umayyads beginning from Hazrat Mu’awiya (r), the renowned companion of the prophet (sm) claimed their caliphate by dint of Qadar, (predestination). Even heinous activities and evil deeds were ascribed to Qadar. Some of the instances are as follows: -<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(a) One day Ma’bad al-Juhani along with `Ata b. Yasar went to al-Hasan al-Basari and said; “O `Abu Sa’id, these princes shed the blood of the Muslims and seize their goods; they do (various things) and say: Our acts occur only according to Allah’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i>. Al-Hasan replied, “The enemies of Alla’h lie<sup>33</sup>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(b) That Mu’awiyah (r) used Qadar in the sense of ‘predestination’ is evident from a letter which he wrote to Hadrat `A’isha Siddisqa, the celebrated wife of the prophet (sm). There he said that, “The matter choice in what concerns them” <sup>33(a)</sup>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(c) This is substanieated by the staement of Ignaz Goldziher who says in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammedaniche Studien</i>: “ The Caliph Yazid b.’Abd al-Malik contemptously calls the pious Hasan al-Basri a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shykh Jahil</i>, a doddering old man whom he would like to kill because pietistical opposition is repellant and inconvenient to him. This Hasan said that the Governer Mughira…inspired the hereditary cliphate of the Umayyad’s during Mu’awiyah’s life to his son Yazid<sup>34</sup>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(d) Some of the well wishers of the Umayyad’s said that, “ Allah garlanded you to Khilafa and guidance; for what ‘Allah decrees (qada’), there is no change<sup>35</sup>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="tab-stops: 229.5pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="tab-stops: 229.5pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">All these early reports lead us to idea that side by side with other scocio economic and intellectual developments, the Umayyads from the beginning of siezing powers, tried to convince the people that their caliphate is by the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i> of Allah. This is the substantiated when we find that al-Hasan before the death of al-Hasan b. Ali wrote to him get clear conception of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i> which in the name of ‘predestination’ was being misinterpreted by Umayyads in various ways.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 19.5pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 19.5pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -19.5pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(3)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Hasan’s life in al-Basra<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div align="center" class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Against this socio-political and intellectual background al-Hasan started his life in al-Basra. We have already mentioned that al-Hasan came to al-Basra in 37/657. Shaeder says that he went to al-Basra at the time of Siffin war. For the first time in his life he took part in an expedition in the eastern sector of </span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Iran</span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span style="font-size: 12pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">In 43/ 663 al-Hasan went to Hirat of Afghanistan with a view to preaching Islam and stayed there for three years (till 45/665). He is reported to have acted as secretary to the Governor Rabbi bin Ziyad al-Harith al-Shayba of Khurashan. There he probably discharged the function of a collector of taxes (Zijia) also<sup>36</sup>. He stayed long for ten years. Prof. watt thinks that al-Hasan might have been acquinted with pahlabi scriots during this period. But hardly any foreign culture could have influenced him, as he was the master of the Quran and Hadith studies.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">He came to al-Basra shortly before the death of Mu’awiya in 61/680 since he is said to have opposed and protested the oath of allegiance to Yazid as heir apparent in the name of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i>. He does not apppear to have played any role in the fighting or in the political debates which followed on the death of Yazid b. Mu’awiya in 65/684.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Hajjaj became Governor of Iraq in 75/694. He is said to have maintain a good relations with al-Hasan during the former’s residence in al-Basra. Al-Hasan particularly helped in the taks of improving the diacritical marks of the Quranic text, which was initiated by al-Hajjaj. The friendly relations between Hajjaj and Hasan came to a tragic end in 86/705 over the issue of founding a new town in wasit located in the middle of al-Kufa and al-Basra. Al-Hasan did not like the idea of new town<sup>38</sup>. For his own safety went into hiding until the death of al-Hajjaj in 95/714. It is said that the Governer Hajjaj requested al-Hasan to see him at his deathbed; but al-Hasan refused to comply with his request. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Hasan as a man of outstanding personality maintained balance in the course of this activity. Although he was not in good terms with al-Hajjaj and did not like the activities of the Umayyads, even then he did not take part in the rising of Ibn ‘Ash’ath in 82/701-4. In this period al-Hasan not merely remained loyal to the authority but he urged his friends not to join the uprising. He explained to them that the violent action of tyrants were a punishment sent by Allah which could not be opposed by the sword but must be endured patiently. But he also said that the sinners are fully responsible for their actions and cannot exculpate themselves by saying that Allah created all actions.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The period from 65/684 to 86/705 was undoubtedly most important in his career. The chief proponents of the religious movement of al-Basra such as Mutarrif b. Abdullah al-Basri (d.95) used to visit al-Hasan frequently. Most probably at this time his thought became fully explicit. The years from 86/705 to 95/714 may have led to further maturity. After 95/714 on the assumption of ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-Aziz to caliphate. When Umar died early in 101/720 and was succeeded by Yazid II, al-Hasan supported the Umayyad Governor in his dealing with the Muhallabids<sup>39</sup>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">It was this exceptional personality and courage of al-Hasan that he publicity criticized yazid ibn al-Muhallab after he had gained control of al-Basra and was calling men to fight against the Umayyads. Al-Hasan urged his fellow-citicizens to defy this appeal. In spite of the open hospitality, the Muhallabids took no suppresive action against al-Hasan, most probably because of the fact that he was so widely respected in al-Basra. He was publicly honored after the quelling of the Muhallabid rising later in 101/720. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The boldness of al-Hasan is amply demonstrated when the newly appointed Governor of al-Basra ibn Hubayra sought advice for the purpose of winning over the people to be Umayyad side. Al-Hasan warned him to fear Allah more than the caliph, since the caliph could not protect him against Allah, while Allah can protect him against the Caliph. Even then al-Hasan was profusely rewarded by the Governor for his piety and boldness.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Ibn Khaliqan noted that al-Hasan died at the age of 86 on the 1<sup>st</sup> Rajab, 110 H. /October A.C. 728. He quoted Hamid al-Tawil thus:-<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Hasan died on Thursday evening; the next morning Friday, having finished the requisite ceremonies with the corpse, we bore it off, after the Friday prayer, and we buried it. All the people followed the buyer and were so taken up with it that no afternoon prayer was said that day in the mosque, for none remained to pray; this, I believe was till then unexampled in Islam<sup>40</sup>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The deepest feeling as exhibited after his death is due to the fact that he surpassed all in piety and meditation<sup>41</sup>. Saifuddin Kharaji in his book <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Khulasa</i><u> </u><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tahzib fi’l kamal fi asma’ Rijal</i>, said that al-Hasan was the best Zahid, the most pious man, and the rarest scholar of this time<sup>42</sup>. Leaving aside all other qualities of al-Hasan. If we consider him as a scholar, we can safely say that in his time he was the greatest scholar although many others excelled in different branches of knowledge in the Umayyad period. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Hasan al-Basri was highly esteemed as a transmitter of tradition, since he was believed to have known personally seventy of those who took part in the battle of Badr. Most of the religious movements within Islam trace their origin back to al-Hasan. The Sufis felt throughout the ages the lasting influence of his ascetic piety. The orthodox Sunnis never tire of quoting his devout sayings and even the Mutazilites reckon him as one of themselves<sup>43</sup>. Al-Hasan was the grand master of such famous proponents of this school as wasil b Ata and Amr b. Ubayd. It has been remarked about philosophical origin of the doctrine of choice that wasil was a pupil of al-Hasan al-Basri who inclined for a time to the doctrin of free will which doctrine became another cardinal point in Mu’tazilite belief. The doctrine of free will was at the time held by a group called Qadarites (from qadar power) as opposed to the Jabarites. The Qadarites were the earliest school of philosophy in Islam and how widely spread their ideas may be inferred from the fact that the two of the Umayyad Caliphs Mu’awiya II and Yazid III were qadarites <sup>44</sup>. As a matter of fact, the doctrine of Qadar was first pronounced by al-Hasan al-Basri and remained in Vogue till the end of the third century Hijri.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Besides all that said above, the depth of al-Hasan’s scholarship may be guessed from a list of his works<sup>45</sup>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 19.5pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 19.5pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -19.5pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(4)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Works of al-Hasan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoBodyText"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(a)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Tafsir al Quran, see Al-Fihrist, ‘Ibn Nadim, fuck p. 54. ‘Ibn Nadim noted the works of al-Hasan in his Firhrist including the Risala under our consideration which was sa id to have been referred to this Risala in his work <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kutubut Tafsir</i><u> </u> a fihrist, Besides this, `Ibn Nadim noted about two other books of al-Hasan<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (I )Nujul al Quran and (ii) Kitab al-Adab fi’l Qur’an. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(b)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Al-Qira’ah</b>:- The name of this book work is mentioned by Ahmad Ibn Muhammad (d….1117/1705) in his book <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ithafu Fazala al-Bashar</i> and this has been quoted by brocklemen in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gescihchte</i> (vol-2, page 327). The similar work has also been noticed by Bergstrasser in Islamica, vol-2, 1926, pp.11-57.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(c)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Risalatun fi’l Qadar</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">: This Risala is our main text about al-Hasan’s Philosophy of the Freedom of Choice and the doctrine of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i>. We have considered the Risala in three chapters in detail (Supra pp.175-290).It was </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">witten</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> in reply to a letter of Caliph Abdul Malik. ‘Ibn Badim noticed it in his Fihrist in p. 54. The manuscript is available in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Aya Sfiya</i> Ms. No. 3998/2 (page no. 13, 882 H.). It may be seen also in the Fihrist Mahad al-Makhtutat al-Arabia, (2/126-471). The MS is available in Koprulu, 1589/39, WZkM 27/70, and Salim Aga, 4/584, p.51-57. We have already mentioned that this Risala has been edited by H. Ritter and published in Der Islam, Vol-21, 1933, pp. 67-83.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(d)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Fada’ili Makka: It is known that al-Hasan wrote this book for his friend ‘ Abdur Rahkman Ibn ‘Anas. Reference I savailable in al Tabari, Vol-1, page-1096. The name of the book sometimes, is also known as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Risalatun fi Fasli Muzawara fi’l Atiq</i>. This book is available in </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Leiden</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 940, p.31, H. 1009. This work seems to have been popular and is available in the collection of as many as 28 Libraries of different countries of the world including </span><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Bengal</span></st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">. Regfernces of Libraries available in Fu’ad Sasgin’s Tarikh <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">al-Turath </i>al-Arabi<sup>46</sup>. (Vol-1, part-IV on Aqa’id and Tasawwuf) also exhibits that in the early days of Islam this book was copied and was brought to different places. The translation of this book by Mustafa Hamid is found in the Turkish language and was published in H. 1280. Saber Turkish language it was translated into Bengali and the MS in Begnali is preserved in Asiatic Society of Bengal 2/254; it was mentioned by Brookleman later and was also corrected by him </span><sup><span style="font-family: Verdana; font-size: 12pt;">46(a)</span></sup><span style="font-family: Verdana; font-size: 12pt;">.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(e)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Farid aw’Arbaun Wa Khamsuna Farida</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">: As far as it is known from Sasgin’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tarkish al-Turath al-Arabi</i> this work of al-Hasan is also available in as many as 12 Libraries of different palces of the world. Some of these are: (I) Lalalih, 1703. (see MS 7/79); (ii) Istanbul University Library, 3738/1, pp.1-10, H.1100; (iii) </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Paris</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> 780/1, pp.1-15, H.1520; (iv) Muhammad Bukhari, 202/2, Chapters 12-24, H. 1300.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(f)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Risalatun fi’l Takalif</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">: It is available in the Alexandreia Municiapal Library, 3658/Vol-9, p.14, 1160 H. See Fihrist Mahad al-Makhtutat al-‘Arabiyya 1/126.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(g)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Shurut al-Imama</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">: It is still in the form of menuscript and is available in Taimur, Collection, 177/8, p.117-120, 969 H.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(h)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Wasiyatun aw Wasiyatun Nabi li Abi Hurayra</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">: The subject matter of this book is Sufism. It is available in Aser Afindi, 455/2, p.17. Hijri 1168; Rashid, 129/2, Chapters 10-37, H.1100.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(i)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Istigfarat al-Munqizah min al-Nar</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">: This book has been collected by some unkown writer in the 7<sup>th</sup> or 8<sup>th</sup> century Hijri. It is available in (I) Qased Jee Za’da, 721/2 chapter14-21, 1206 45/1, pp.1-7, Hijri 1200 H. The book is also found in Bur’sah ‘Ulu Jami; 1588/3, pp. 177-209.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(j)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Asma ‘al ‘Idrisiyyah</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">: Its content is on Sufism. The book is available in Alexandria Municipal Library, 3909. Vol-2, p.6, H. 1000. The reference of this book is available in the Fihrist Ma’had al-Maktutat al- ‘Arabiya 1/144.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(k)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Risala</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">: (in the form of letters) is still another work of al-Hasan which was written to ‘Umar b. ‘Abd al-‘Aziz. Here al-Hasan advised the Caliph to keep aloof from the pomp and grandeur of life. The reference of this work is to be found in ‘Abu Nu’im’s Hulya al-Awliya. (2/134-140 and Ritter ed. Islam, 21’ 21 ff). The summary of this Risala is available in Majid al-din ibn al-Athir’s book <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mukhtar fi- Manaqib al-Abrar</i>. Some protion of the is Risala is taken by al-Ghazzali in his ‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ihya Ulum al-Din</i>, printed in </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Cairo</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">. P.49.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(l)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The lectures of al-Hasan</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">: The famous lectures are quoted by numerous authors. These lectures are collected by al-Jahiz and was arranged in his book al-Bayan wa’l Tabyin, 3/132-137. Ibn Qutayba took some portion of the lectures in his book <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Uyun al-Akhbar</i>, 2/344. Ibn Abi Hadid mentioned some of his lectures in Sharah Nahjul Balagh, 1/469.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(m)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Ahadith al –Mutafarriqa</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">: In this book, the traditions were collected by an unknown writer after the death of al-Hasan. The book is available in ‘Aya Soiya p. 25, 1100 H.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(n)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Hasan narrated some more traditions (Hadith) which are translated in Turkish language. It is available in ‘Athar-I-Hasan. The Shara was written by Takritli Zadeh Ha-Hasani published it in Karkuk, 1329-1331. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">All these work definitely lead us to the idea that he was the greatest scholar in those early of Islam.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 19.5pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 19.5pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -19.5pt;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">(5)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Works on al-Hasan<o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="MsoBodyText"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(a)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Fada’il al-Hasan al-Basri</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Adabuhu, Hikmatuhu, Nash ‘athuhu, Hayatuhu, Balgatuhu</i>. till the 3end., This was written by ‘Abul Faraj ‘Abdur Rahman ‘Ibn Jauzi (d. 597/1200), Aya Sofiya, 1642. Printed in </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Cairo</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> in 1350 Hijri.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(b)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Akhbar al-Hasan al-Basri:</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> It was written by ‘Abdul Ghani ‘Abdul Wahid al-Maqdasi (d.600/1203). <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(c)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Zahiriya</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">: Collection No.55 (165-170) in handwriting. Some sader Baha Baha wrote about al-Hasan but the book is incomplete as H.H. Shaeder under the title “al-Hasan al-Basri” published it. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Der Islam</i>, Vol-14, 1925. PP. 42-75.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(d)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Hasan al-Basri</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">: Written by Ihsan ‘Abbas, </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Cairo</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1952. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(e)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Maqam al-Hasan al-Basri ‘Inda’l Muluk:</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> This book is on the narration of the position of al-Hasan in the esteem of the Caliphs. A Chapter of this book is quoted in the book Makarem al-Akhlaq. Written by an unknown Bengali writer in Arabic (No. 1062).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(f)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Studien Zur Geschichte der Islamischen Frommiqkeit:</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Al-Hasan al-Basri: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Der Islam</i>, Vol-21, 1933 pp.1-83. In this article Helmut Ritter wrote something of the sect history of different sects and al-Hasan’s doctrine of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i> and edited the text, “Risala” on <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i> and Freedom of Choice.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(g)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Political Theology in Early Islam</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">: Al-Hasan al-Basri’s treatise of Qadar; Julian Obermann wrote something about al-Hasan’s doctrine of Qadar and Ikhtiyar in the Jaos. Off print series no. 6, </span><st1:place><st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Philadelphia</span></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, </span><st1:country-region><span style="font-size: 12pt;">U.S.A.</span></st1:country-region></st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 18.75pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 18.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.75pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(h)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">“Al-Hasan al-Basri” an aritcle which was written by Dr. Shawqi Daif and was included in a book, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tarqish al-Adab al-Arabi</i> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(Al-Asr al-Islami)</i> Dar al-Marif, </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Cairo</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1119 Hijri.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;">C: <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROBLEM IN THE FORMATIVE STAGE OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION<o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">In his Risala and lectures, al-Hasan emphasized the idea that evil actions like disbelief, disobedience or predestination or other prohibited must not be ascribed to Allah in the name of predestination or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i>. But the Umayyads forstered the idea of predestination and determininatic out-look with a view to covering up their evil actions. The situation, therfore, demanded and extraordinarily couragous soul and a vastly learned scholar like al-Hasan to challenge the idea as it is blatantly incompatible with the notion of the justice of ‘Allah. He considers it unthinkable that ‘Allah should be related to any evil actions whatover, either by way of prederemining men’s evil actions or by punishing men for actions performed invloluntarity.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Hasan insists in his Risala that man must have the “potency” to perform or not to perform his actions as he chooses, if ‘Allah is to be just in taking him to task. Al-Hasan proves his point by quoting verses interalia he quoted “Allah burdens no person with what is beyond his capacity<sup>47</sup>. It is the starting point of a debate carried through centuries on the question as to whether ‘Allah may or may not impose unfulfillable duties on man <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">i.e.</i> the commandments which he has imposed on man for which he has not given potency to men. In other words is it possible that ‘Allah should ask all men to believe in him and worship Him and at the same time predestine the vast majority of these people from the womb of their mothers to disbelieve? Consideration of this question constitutes the main theme of his Risala.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Hasan’s idea of Qadar of ‘Allah and ‘Ikhtiyar of man were carried on with all its force to the end of the third century Hijri by his chief disciple Qatada and his associates. The name of Ma’bad al-Juhani, the alleged founder of Qadarite movement came to be associated with it much later<sup>48</sup>. We have already mentioned that this Ma’bad seems to have been an obscure person of his time. He holds not document cuously only in the late third century Hijri<sup>49</sup>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">It may be noted that here that al-Hasan’s debut on Qadarism, seems to have given rise to several streams of Qadariya thinking ranging from absolute freedom of will to the concept of the Freedom of Choice between alternative courses of action. In this perspective Ma’bad upheld the extreme freewillism against al-Hasan al-Basri’s Freedom of Choice. The famous Ghylan Ibnk-Dimashqi who developed the Freewillist idea of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i> further a follower of Ma’bad. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">In contrast to Ma’bad al-Juhani, Wasil and ‘Amr b. ‘Ubayd were direct students of al-Hasan Wasil and Amr b. Ubayd were direct students of al-Hasan al-Basri and in conceiving the doctrine of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i>, they had greater affinity to al-Hasan’s concept of the Freedom of Choice, though on a slightly different point concerning the exercise of Allah’s justice in relation to human freedom. Wasil differed with his teacher resulting his ouster from the circle of the latter disciples. Consequently he earned the title of Mu’tazila, the succeeded.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The Mu’tazilite movement headed by Wasil b. Ata b. Ata built upon first on al-Hasan’s idea of the Freedom of Choice, but gradually deviating from it bit by bit towards the extremist idea of the Freedom of will and finally resting their whole movement on the foundation of Freedom of human will equated to the “Creation of human action” by man himself. Prof. Nyberg shows that these Mu’tazilities had to confront with foreign rationalized religious system specially with the manichees<sup>50</sup> and it was because of this confrontation and consequently a defence of Islam that new system of Islamic polemic emerged. The adoption of such rational methods in analyzing the religious thought in logical terms was new.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">However, the Mu’tazilites came forward to adopt the Qadarite principle of delegation of power and to discuss it in terms of their new logical system. The Mu’tazilites said that by virtue of ‘potencey’ given to him by ‘Allah’ man does or makes his own actions, i.e. is its agent. Some of the later Mu’tazilites expressed the same idea by the phrase “man creates (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Khalaqa</i>) his actions” good or evil. The selection of his term <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Khalaqa </i> is however, unfortuanate as it exposed them to the charge of associating other gods with ‘Allah’. Any way, the Mu’tazilites discussed later on all the concepts of al-Hasan along with some other concepts of their own (as analysed in the seventh Chapter).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">In recent years, it has become easier to consider these views of the individual Mu’tazilite thinker as many of the Mu’tazilite manuscripts have been recorded and edited. Besides the informations available in al-‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ashari’s Maqalat al-Islamiyin,</i> one valuable book on Mu’tazilism is al-<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Khayyat’s al-Intisar wa’l-Radd’ala Ibn al-Rawandi</i> This book has been edited by Prof. H.S. Nyberg in 1925 in Cairo. Sahib ‘Ibn Abbad al-Taliqani’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Al-Ibana ‘An Madhhab ahl al-Adl</i> has been edited by Mohammad Hasan al-Yasin in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nafa’ is al-Makhtutat</i>, Vol-1, pp.5-28 in Baghdad in 1952-53.Husain ‘Ali Mahfuz has edited al-Sahib Ibn Abbad’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Risala Fi’l-Hidaya wa’l Dalala</i> in Tehran in 1955. Another important book edited in recent times is ‘Abd al-Jabbar’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Al-Mughni fi Abwab al-Tawhid wa’l-Adl</i>, vol-VI, pt.1. It has been edited by Ahmad Fu’ad al-Ahwani in </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Cairo</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> in 1962.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Some of these sources show that early in the history of the Mu’tazilite, a group of them emerged whose in Allah’s Omni potence was foremost. They came to be known as “Ahl al-‘Ithbat” about whom prof. Watt has devoted a full chapter in his thesis.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The leading figures among the ‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ahl al-Ithbat</i> were Dirar ibn Amr and his disciple al-Husayn ibn Muhammad al-Najjar. Dirar ibn ‘Amr was disciple of Wasil ibn <u> </u>‘Ata’ who was the disciple of al-Hasan. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">It may be recalled that al-Hasan in his Risala said that a man is responsible for his actions to the extent to which he “acquires” (Kasaba) it. He quoted the verses of the Qur’an<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">, “Laha ma Kasabat wa’alaiha mak’tasabat”.</i> He lays strees on the extent of acquisition <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kasb</i> of actions and argues that the problem of man’s responsibility for his acts was enisaged for the first time by the epistle of al-Hasan and the theologians later on concerned themselves with voluntary actins in their discussion concerning ‘Ikhtisab<sup>52</sup>. In Wasil’s teaching, the idea of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kasb</i> is traceable. Wasil learnt it from his teacher al-Hasan and Dirar consequently learnt it from Wasil <sup>52(a)</sup>. We would consider it in details in the eighth chapter).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Dirar advanced a step ahead of his predecessor in systematic philosophical thinking and taught that the human actions have two agents; Allah “creates” it and man “acquires” (Kasaba) it. Al-Najjar said that “Allah creates the action of men and men are the doers of them”. In the Qur’an and in the teachings of Dirar and al-Najjar Kasb means to act in a manner that stands to one’s credit or falls to one’s debit in Allah’s account.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Dirar says that Allah creates the actions of man; He brings it into being, but man performs it and is responsible for it. This assertion may be justly tatken to task for his actions only when he brings it into being, or “creates” it. Following his master Dirar, al-Najjar says that instinctively feels it to be their action. It implies that al-Najjar advocate the idea of “Choice” related to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kasb</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="tab-stops: 171.0pt; text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="tab-stops: 171.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Najjar’s disciple al-Ashari accepts his master’s idea of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kasb</i> but in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kitab al-Luma</i> he went to the extent of denying use of the term, “Choice” of actions directly. He probably does so because the Arabic word for agent <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(fai’l) </i>can mean not only “doer”. But aslos “maker” and in this second sense it is a synonym of “creator” while <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muktasib</i> is synonymous with “doer” only. It does not mean that al-Ashari advocates predestination which denies the activity of an agent. Al-Ashari never denies the responsibility of human actions. It is implied in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kitab al-Ibana</i>. But his discussion about the good and specially about the evil in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Luma</i>. Has made it more clear that “a man has the chance to take initiative in the acquisition of actions” which make him “responsible” for the performance. This sense of ‘responsibility’ entails choice, which exists by implication in the taughts of al-Ashari. It gets strong support them al-Ashari explains in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kitab al-Luma</i> the difference between a compulsory action and a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kasb</i> action by the fact that the human being “knows how to distinguish between the two states in himself and others by a compulsory knowledge which leaves no room for doubt<sup>53</sup>. Moreover, al-Ashari follows al-Hasan when the latter says that evil is not “commanded” by Allah. It means evil actions are committed by men by themselves. Al-Ashari agrees with it and says that Allah only decrees the “acts” of obedience” in the sense of “announcing” and “writing them down” or in other words “recording” them: but he decrees evil never in the sense of commanding them. It implies fairly the idea that performance of acts especially evil are left to men. (This would be considered in the eighth Chapter).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">In recent years, al-Ash’ari’s manuscripts have been edited. One of the principal book <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kitab Maqalat al-Islamiyyin wa’khtilaf al-Musallin</i> has been edited by Helmut Ritter, (</span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Wiesbaden</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1963). Besides <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Al-Ibana `an `Ususl al-Diyana</i> edited in Cairo, 1348 H., al-`Ash’ ari’s most important work <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kitab al-Luma ‘fi’l Radd ‘ala Ahl al-Zygh wa’l-Bida</i> was edited by R.J. McCarthy in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">theology of al-Ash’ari, (Beirut, 1952-53).</i><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Baqillani is one great proponent of Ash’arism who realized the obscurtity of his master’s idea of choice and rectified it in his own works specially in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tamhid</i>. According to al-Baqillani, a man is not compelled (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mudtarr</i>): on the contrary, he has the “Potency” to acquire (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kasaba</i>) actions by dint of his “choice” which he makes freely. In his arguments it is also noticeable that “potency” and intention as essential elements are connected with “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kasb</i>”. But Baquillant also carefully juxtaposes ‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Iktiyar</i> with ‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Iktisab </i>and hence the association of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Iktiyar</i> with <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Iktisab</i> as two antonyms compulsion is easily comprehensible in his thoughts. Along with this it is also clear that his insistance on ‘Ikhtiyar for the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kasb</i> action serves as a logical justification to the fact that man is made responsible for his acquisition and so liable for reward and punishment. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">So Baqillani is clear in respect of his idea of choice and acquisition. One is not now required to ferret out the idea of choice as is required in al-Ash’aris “Synergism”. On the other hand, Baqillani’s idea of ‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ikhtiyar</i> corresponds to some extent to what the sage al-Hasan’s idea that evil is not commanded by ‘Allah. But Baqillani says that evil actions are decreed in the sense that ‘Allah “creates” them, “announces” them and records them, but never predestines them for man.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Baqillani explains all these ideas in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kitab al-Tamhid</i> edited by R.J. McCarthy, </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Beirut</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1957. Another source of al-Baqillani’s views is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Al-Insaf</i>, edited by Muhammad Zahid al-Kawthari, </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Cairo</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1963.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Maturidi, a contemporary of al-Ash’ari accepted the doctrine of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kasb</i> alongwith’ <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ikhtiyar</i> for human actions. He says that the potency give by Allah to man by which he performs the sinful act is essentially able to effect the act of obedience. Such idea of potency of al-Maturidi corresponds to that of al-Hasan. He says that a man is free to choose between alternative courses of action which he performs by dint of his potency. He further says that the denial of the choice and potency of man for “acquisition of action” of actions good or evil and is liable to blame or punishment for sins committed by men; but on the day of judgment. He will punish them for his own actions. Al-Maturidi says that this is quite absured. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">So al-Maturidi directly advocates the idea of the Freedom of Choice and the potency of man. Al-Maturidi’s idea is far more clear than al-Ash’ari. Al-Baqillani’s views in this regard is nearer to al-Maturidi as the former tries to remove the complexity that inheres in his teacher in this regard. Al-Maturidi explains view like the above in his kitab <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">al-Tawhid</i> recently edited by Fathalla Kholeif. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">We have dedicated ninteth chapter to analyse the concept of al-Ghazali, the great teacher after al-Hasan. In his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">al-Iqtisad fi’l I’tiqad</i>, Al-Ghazali expresses his philosophy of action of Allah. Al-Ghazali emphasizes the fact that Allah is the creator of human actions or motions. But it does not prevent these motions from being in man’s potency as “acquisitions”. The motion on the one hand is an attribute of Allah; but it has a relation to another attribute, namely “human potency”. It is simply because of this relation that it is called “acqusition”.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Acquisitioin as related with human potency, also implies the idea that such human potency is exercised by an agent who has his own reason to choose between the alternatives. Ghazali says that the will is produced by knowledge in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">the fi’l al-Ikhtiyari</i>. The will produced by deliberation to execute that which reason has accepted as ‘good’ constitutes ‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ikhtiyar</i>”. The term ‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ikhtiyar</i> means the choice of an idea or an object appearing good to reason. It follows that a decision is made by the intellect <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">i,e.</i> when it accepts anything as good, one likes to act accordingly . Negatively this assertion implies that when one chooses good, he then rejects evil. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Ghazali’s above idea of “choice”, leads to another important notion namely the notion of “good” and “evil”. If it is up to the reason of a man to accept something as good, it is also upto his reason to reject something as evil. It implies a different idea about “good and evil” which al-Ghazali terms as “relative”. But this relative idea of good and evil also entails the idea of ‘choice’ (by a kind of synergism”). In due course in our discussion it will be observed that al-Ghazali follow al-Hasan and develops his idea in a subtle manner. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Ghazali’s thoughts over all these are mainly expressed in his philosophical work <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Al-Iqtisad fi’l I’tiqad</i> edited by Ibrahim Agha Cubuku and Husein Atay, Ankara, 1962. Another important source is al-<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ghazali’s Ihya Ulum al-Din</i> in which the short “Creed written in </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Jerusalem</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">” is incorporated. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: center;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 18pt;">Conclusion</span><u><o:p></o:p></u></b></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">From this considerably thorough introduction to the problem under study, it would be relevant to consider some very important points on which also <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">our choice of al-Hasan for the present study </i>depents. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Our study would reveal that al-Hasan in the very early days of Islam formulated for the first time a systematic idea on Qadar (Potency) and the Freedom of choice on the basis of the scattered verses of the Qur’an. Al-Hasan bases himself also on the Sunnah of the Prophet. So it becomes established here that the Qadar ideology and the idea of choice (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ikhtiyar</i>) is a direct outcome of the deed of the Prophet Muhammad (s) and the guidance of the Qur’an and hence precludes any possibilities of “foreign influence”.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Hasan’s Risala brought to light a special type of pietistic attitude from which stemped the first Qadarite movement prompted by qatada, the chief disciple of al-Hasan and his associates. Thus again al-Hasan was fathering it, as he did in case of Ma’bad and Wasil. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">It is clear that the idea of the Freedom of choice that al-Hasan adumbrated was carried on by the subsequent thinkers through different channels and was continued to exist till the 11<sup>th</sup> century A.D.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The uniqueness of al-Hasan’s thought lies also in his excellent method of juxtaposing <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qada</i> with <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i> and identifying <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Amr</i> with Qada and Qadar. Never before him an attempt was made to do so. By juxtaposing <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qada</i> with <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i> and identifying <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Amr</i> with destination’ is a figment of the brain and an absurd concept besides the pale of Islam in the true sense of the term.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">These conclusions are drawn by us on the basis of an analytical study of available facts on the crucible of historical methodology. It leads us to the assertion that the “omnipotence of Allah” does not contradict with the idea of the “Freedom of Choice” which effectively dismisses “predestination” form the teachings of the Qur’an and the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sunnah</i>, This realization of al-Hasan expels the remotest possibility of attaching predestination to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qadar</i> (potency); he thus paved the ground and formulated for the first time, the idea of the Freedom of Choice systematically that helped and inspired further study and development in later times. He may, therefore be called the “Initiator” or “Originator” of the doctrine of Qadar and the Freedom of Choice in the perspective of the intellectual history of Islam.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;">Reference:</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">1.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">W. Thomson, “The Conception of Human Destiny in Islam”. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Muslim World</i>. Vol.-35, 1945, p.281.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">2.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Qur’an SV… 33: 39-40.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">3.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Qur’an, 33:84-86.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">4.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Qur’an, 14:3.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">5.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The term “ potency” for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qudra</i>. Has been explained in detail in the Second Chapter. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">6.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Qur’an, 21: 16-17.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">7.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Qur’an SV. 15:85.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">8.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Qur’an SV. 30:7.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">9.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Qur’an, SV. </span><st1:time hour="18" minute="16"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">18:16</span></st1:time><span style="font-size: 12pt;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">10.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Qur’an, SV. 45: 2-5.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">11.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Al-Qur’an, 38: 26-27.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">12.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Qur’an 53:34-42.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">13.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Qur’an, 29:5.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">14.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Qur’an, 42: 19.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">15.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Qur’an, 90: 10-20.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">16.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">W.Thomson, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Op. Cit</i>, p. 288-289.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">17.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">M.S. Scale, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muslim Theology</i>, Luzac & Co., Ltd, </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">London</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1964, pp.38-41.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">18.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">M.A. Rouf, “The Qur’an and Free will”, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Muslim World</i>, Vol.20, 1970, No.4, p.290.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">cf.</i> w.m. Watt, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Formative Period of Islamic Thought</i>, </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Edinburgh</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1973, <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> pp.83-84.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">19.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Hasan al-Basri, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Risala</i>, ed. H. Ritte, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Der Islam</i>, 1933, vol.21, pp. 67-82<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">20.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Hasan al-Basri, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Op. cit.</i> p.73.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">21.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Ibn Khalliqan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wafayat al-Ayan</i>, ed. S. Moinul Huq, Pakistan Historical Society, </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Karachi</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1976, Vol-III, p.166.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">22.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Ibn Murtada, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tabaqat al-Mu’tazila</i>, ed. S.Wildzer, Weisbaden, 1961, p. 18, See Foot-note.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">23.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Ibn Khaliqan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Op. cit</i>, p.167.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">24.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Dr. Shawqi Daif, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Al-Ashar al-Islami</i>, Dar Ma’rif, </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Cairo</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1119, p. 445.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">25.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ibid</i>, p. 445.<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cf</i>. Al-Khazraji, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tadhhib al-Kamil</i>, p. 432.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">26.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Helmut Ritter, “Studien Zur Geschichte Der Islamichen Frommiggkeit” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Der Islam</i>, Vol.21, p.30, fn.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">27.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Ibn Murtada, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tabaqat al-Mu’tazila</i>, ed. S.Wildzer,<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">28.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">W.M.Watt, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Formative Period of Islamic Thought</i>, </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Edinburgh</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1973. P.78.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in left 2.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">29.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Encyclopedia of Islam</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, Vol.1, p.1085.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">30.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Ibid</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, p.1085.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">31.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Ibid</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, P.1086.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">32.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Ibid</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, P. 1086.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">33.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Ibn Qutaiba, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kitab al-Ma’rif</i>, P.225; <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">cf</i>, Watt, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Op.Cit</i>, pp.99-100. *Originality God.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">33(a). M.A. Rouf, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Op. Cit</i>, P.290.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">34.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Ignaz Goldziher, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muhammedanich Studien</i>, translated by S.M. Stern, <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Muslim Studies</i>, Vol.2, p.21.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">35.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">W.M. Watt, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">op,cit</i>, p.83.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">36.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">H.H. Shaeder, “Hasan al-Basri….”, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Der Islam</i>, Vol.14, 1925, p.49.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">37.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">W.M. Watt, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Op.cit</i>, p.78.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">38.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">H.H.Shaeder, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Op. cit</i>, p.59, fn. 3/37. Cf,(1) Watt, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Op.cit</i>,p.78.(II)<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Dairatul Ma’rif</i>, Islamiyya University of Punjab, </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Lahore</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1973 Vol. 8, pp.263-65.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">39.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Watt, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Op.cit</i>, p.78. cf. Ibn Khalliqan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wafayat al-Ayan</i>, ed. S.M. Huq, Vol.II, p.168.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">40.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Ibn Khalliqan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Op.cit</i>, p.169.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">41.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Dhahabi, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tadhkiratul Huffaz</i>, ed. </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hyderabad</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, Vol.1,pp.66-67.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">42.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Dr. Shawqi Daif, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Al-Asr al-Islami</i>, Dar Ma’rif, </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Cairo</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1119, p.446.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">43.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">P.K. Hitti, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">History of the Arabs</i>, Macmillan, </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">London</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1968,p.242.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">44.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> W.M. Watt, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Formative Period of Islamic Thought</i>, </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Edinburgh</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1973, pl.87.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">45.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Fuad Sasgin, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tarikh al-Turath al-Arabi</i>, ed. Dr. Sa’id Abd’al-Rahim, 1983,p.9.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">46.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Ibid</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, p.11-12.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">46(a). An Arabic Manuscript describing al-Hasan’s idea about pilgrimage is available to us.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">47.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Quran, Sv. 182; 6.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">48.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Encyclopedia of Islam</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, Vol.4, p.371.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">49.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Ibid</span></i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, p.371.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">50.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Khayyat, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kitab al-Intisar</i>, ed. H.S. Nyberg. P. 133.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">51.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">W.M. Watt, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Freedom of Will and Predestination in Early Islam</i>, </span><st1:city><st1:place><span style="font-size: 12pt;">London</span></st1:place></st1:city><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, 1948, pp.104-113.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">52.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">J.Schacht, “New Sources for the History of Mohammedan Theology”. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Studia Islamica</i>, Vol.1, 1953, p.30.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">52(a). Wasil used the term ‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kasb</i>’ while expressing the idea of responsibility. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Dirar, the disciple of Wasil and an early Mutazili learnt and used it later on.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">53.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Ash’ari, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kitab al-Luma</i>, par.92.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">54.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Al-Ghazali, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ihya Ulum al-Din</i>, Vol.1, p.98, I.18/19;<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">cf</i>, Al-Ghzali, Al-Iqtisad fi’l I’tiqad, pp.91-92</span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;"><st1:place><st1:city><br />
</st1:city></st1:place></span></o:p></span></b></span></o:p></span></b></span></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><b><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><b><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><st1:place><st1:city>[Dr.</st1:city> <st1:state>Md.</st1:state></st1:place> Bodiur Rahman</span></o:p></span></b></span></o:p></span></b></span></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;"><b>Prof. of Philosophy [Ex]</b></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;"><st1:place><st1:city><b>Chittagong University</b></st1:city><b>, </b><st1:country-region><b>Bangladesh]</b></st1:country-region></st1:place></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3080178902721588711.post-64063350584753983762010-02-15T08:00:00.000-08:002010-06-27T23:31:33.784-07:00Typology of Knowledge in the East and the West<h1><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 16px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;"><br />
<br />
<h1 style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Prof. Dr. Muin-ud-Din Ahmad Khan</span></b></span></o:p></span></h1><h1 style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 36px; font-weight: normal;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Science and religion are knowledgeable subjects. Knowledge is basic to the understanding of both science and religion. Far more than speculative thinking, both science and religion demand varying degrees of rational judgment and ratiocination. Rather, for successful score in any of the two, higher learning is called for and ever readiness to accept the objective truth and factual evidence is prerequisite.</span></span></span></b></span></span></b></span></o:p></span></h1><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Yet, the basic viewpoint of religion is holistic, whereas the underlying attitude of science is annalistic which needs be elemental, partitive and smallest possible unmixed single-cum-simple material objects. Moreover, in the process of judging both religion and science, the capacity of the subjective element has to be taken into consideration, because, human mind, like the minds of other animals, is discursive in behavior, which requires of religion to proceed from wholeness of the holistic standpoint to the partitive concrete situation involving analytical exposition of its doctrines for proper understanding. Likewise, science is required to proceed from partitive experiential or experimental findings through generalization towards estimation of the wholeness for proper understanding since human understanding is dependent on the conceptual process of knowing that requires in its turn a conjoined meeting point or clicking of the particular and the universal for the comprehension of anything whatsoever. Science being thus somewhat centripetal in gait and religion resembling a sort of centrifugal force, the two can neither be mutually conjugated nor can be fused with one another.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Nevertheless, for the survival of the human life on the earth and for the progress and development of human society, science is indispensable; so also, for the peace and happiness of the human spirit and for the well-being of the human entity in the next world, in the life after death through eternity, religion is essential. The two, therefore, ought to be mutually adjusted and suitably balanced for the well fare of human life. In fact, religion proposes to accomplish the task of balancing science and religion on ethical morality, and science proposes to do it through proper education. In presence of this educational perspective, we propose a basic discussion on the typology of knowledge.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </span></o:p></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">In the East, particularly amongst the Hindus, Buddhist and Muslims, knowledge is sharply distinguished from learning. `Knowledge’ to the Aryan Hindus and Buddhists is </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">gnana</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">জ্ঞান</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">), which stems from `gn’. Like as </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">gn</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> of Greek gnosis. Similarly, the opposite terminology of `gnana’ is `aggna’ and that of Greek `gnostic’ is `agnostic’. Both sets of terminologies carry deeper meaning and significance verging on spirituality.</span></span></span></o:p></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Gnana and gnostic refer to </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">creative learning</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, that emanate from deeper realization as against ordinary learning which is acquisitive and largely imitative and emulative. This latter category of acquisitive learning is called `bidya’in the East , meaning `learning’. As such, in the English language, the terminology of `knowledge’ generally comes to mean `bidya’, equivalent to the verbal sense of learning: whereas the Sanskrit term `gnana’ is</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">often referred to in English as `higher learning’. Thus, the word `</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">knowledge</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">’, which stems from `kn’ like `gn’ (Greek) and `gna’ (Sanskrit), in reality gives the meaning of the opposite pole of deeper knowledge.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">However, philologically considered, to know is deeper than to learn; so also, knowledge could have been placed higher than learning. But in the conventional English usage `higher learning’ seems to stand above knowledge. In other words, in the substantive sense, knowledge seems to conventionally mean learning (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">bidya</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">) and learning (qualified with `higher’ ) means knowledge.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Nevertheless, in the East, knowledge is classified into four typological gradations. Such a classification is common amongst the Aryan Hindus, Buddhists and Muslims. These may be roughly described as perceptual, conceptual, reality and spiritual or divine.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Bangla:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">anubhuti</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">jukti/ tatva</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">satya</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">dibya<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Hindu:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">vyashanar</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">taijasa</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">pragna</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">turiya<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Buddhist:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">bibhu</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">tayjasa</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">pragna</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">turja<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><h2 style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Islamic:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">mahsusat</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">maqulat</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">haqaiq</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ma’rifat</span></span></h2><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">These four types are closely interlinked gradation of knowledge tending from lower to the higher, from the bottom to the top, such as `touch’ leading to `thought’, `thinking’ to `realization’ and meditation to spiritual inspiration and ultimate revelation.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The four types of knowledge are demarcated into two categories, external or </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">exoteric</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> comprising perceptual knowledge and conceptual knowledge and internal or </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">esoteric</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> which includes the knowledge of reality and the divine knowledge, which may be designated as intuitive knowledge and the knowledge of divine inspiration and revelation.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The first categories of </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">exoteric</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> knowledge arise from touch and thought, from sense perception and intellectual thinking which is </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ifso</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">facto</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> imaginative that elevates it through logical ratiocination and methodological reasoning into rational knowledge. Mark you! The perceptual knowledge is a tangible knowledge whereas the conceptual knowledge is intangible abstract knowledge, logical, universal and subjective. Which tops up at rationalism. We have seen in a previous discourse (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Dispensation of Justice in the East and the West</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, pp. 36-37) that Roger Bacon had classified these two types of knowledge as `inferential’ over and against `experimental’ knowledge; he wanted to discard inferential principles and adopt experimental methodology in the curricula of theological education.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">To illustrate the point, we may reproduce relevant passages from the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Dispensation of Justice</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (Renaissance Foundation, Dhaka, 2006), pp.36-37.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">“The terminology of `scientia’ [the original term of science] and its plural `scientiae’ brings us face to face to the greatest medieval European scientific mind, Roger Bacon (1214-1292 A.D.), who wrote his Encyclopedic work: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Opus Majus</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> pleading for drastic change in the mode and methodology of theological education by providing more thorough grounding in scientific researches. In this voluminous work, he wrote a chapter on ‘</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">experimental sciences</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> in Arabic style and called it `</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">scientiae experimentalis</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">’ in exact</span></span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">translation of</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">al-ulum at-tajribiyah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">” (cf. Paul Edwards ed. </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, </span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1967,vol.1-2, pp.240-242).</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">“Nevertheless, factually considered, Roger Bacon was the real progenitor of the scientific spirit and modernism of the West by dint of his exact translation of `</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">al-ulum </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-style: normal;"><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">at-tajribiyah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">’ as `</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">scientiae experimentalis</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">’, which was latterly rendered into English as `</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">experimental sciences’ </span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">and his advocacy of exchanging the existing `inferential system of education’ by `experimental scientific system’, and his insisting on adopting Arabic numerals and mathematics as the basic academic principle. Frank Thilly says that ,</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">he was a “curious mixture of the medieval and modern scholar”, and regarded him as the most original and independent figure amongst those who cultivated mathematical and physical sciences in </span></span><st1:country-region><st1:place><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">England</span></span></st1:place></st1:country-region><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> during the 13</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">th</span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> century A.D. (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">A History of Philosophy</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, p. 185)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">In the East, perceptual and conceptual knowledge are designated as </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">anubhuti</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> and </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">jukti</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> or </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">tatva gnan</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> and are regarded as learning or </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">bidya</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">বিদ্যা</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">) and not the real knowledge, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">gnan </span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">(</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">জ্ঞান</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">per se</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">. Gnan in the real sense comprises two higher categories of knowledge, namely </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">satya gnan </span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">(সত্য জ্ঞান)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, knoledge of reality and the dibya gnan (</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">দিব্য জ্ঞান</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">), knowledge of divinity.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The significant point between the two lower and the higher categories of </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">exoteric</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> and </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">esoteric</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> knowledge is that, the first category begins with sense perception and the second category starts with internal sense of meditation. The rational knowledge being an abstraction of sensual knowledge is not counted in the East as objective, real and concrete knowledge; rationalism is regarded as a methodology of knowledge, as a means and not as end, designated as </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">jukti vidya</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">যুক্তি বিদ্যা</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">), logical learning. In fact, the perceptual knowledge is partly perceived and partly imagined; whereas conceptual knowledge is abstract and completely imaginative. Hence none of them are fully objective and factual knowledge.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">To elucidate the point, let us consider the paradigm of knowledge in the process of knowing; we `learn’ by touch, `understand’ by thinking and `know’ by conception. In the paleographical format `kn’of knowledge stands for `gn’ of Greek gnostic/ agnostic and similarly </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">gn</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> of Sanskrit stands for </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">gnana</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">জ্ঞান</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">), all meaning higher learning and theoretical knowledge, fall far short of Eastern </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Pragna</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">প্রজ্ঞা</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">) wisdom or the knowledge of reality, the third higher grade of knowledge. The </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">dibya</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> or </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">oishi gnan</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ঐশী জ্ঞান</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">) is the fourth highest degree of the knowledge of divinity, divine inspiration and revelation. The last two higher degrees of knowledge, that is, the knowledge of reality and the knowledge of divine revelation are absent from the current usage of Western modern languages. West is playing with mere learning, the elementary stage of knowledge and not with knowledge (</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">জ্ঞান</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">) itself, knowledge </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">per se</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, which leads to wisdom (</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">প্রজ্ঞা)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">. Both are completely absent in the arena of modern Western knowledge.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">In the yardstick of Eastern measurement, therefore, the modern West’s quest for knowledge is a half way house, however brilliantly flooded with pervasive light outside, it is irretrievably plunged into a total darkness inside, arrogantly casting ignoramus aspersion saying in the dictionaries: `the moral majority’ of the Westerners as the largest groups of people in a society considered as having very traditional ideas about moral matters, religion, sexual behavior etc.’ (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Oxford Dictionary</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">). What foolish remark in condemning moral majority of the Christian society. Religiously considered, isn’t it points to moral degradation of Western Christian society!</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">To say the least, these are extremely nostalgic words, which clearly indicate that the medieval Christian phases of Western culture were and still is virtually sandwiched by the pagan classical Graeco-Roman culture on the one hand and secular modern Western culture on the other, which must have thrived in moral and spiritual exuberance in between the classical and modern phases as a conservative ideological tradition that was morally well-behaved sacrosanct Christian religious culture, which is now being disowned by the modernist, dominant minority of the Western Graeko-phile secularist nations.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Whatever may that be, to come to our main point, it may be plainly stated that enchanted by the miraculous revelation of the holy Quran and enthralled by the Prophetic tradition (saying of prophet Muhammad) bidding the Muslims to seek after knowledge from the cradle to the grave, the sagacious Muslims of the early times brought forth one novel stream of knowledge at the ground of the third stage, the knowledge of reality, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">satya gnan</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">haqiqat</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, or </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">haqaiq</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, as we have mentioned in the index, which is the experimental science. Which stands not on the material basis of things ( </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ashya</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">), but rather on the basis of the reality of things </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">(haqaiqul ashya). </span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Islamic theory is ‘</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">haqaiqul ashya thabitutun’, that is, realities of things are established. </span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">On the one hand, they tried to explore the divine technique of creation in the physical nature of the world and on the other hand, they tried to sift the truth of the information narrated by the Companions and their followers from the Prophet Muhammad (peace be on him). The former brought forth the physical sciences and the latter brought into being the sciences of prophetic tradition, designated respectively as </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ulum-at-tajribiyah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> and </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ulum-al-hadith</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, the experimental sciences and the sciences of Prophetic Tradition,</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">To gauge the semantic of `knowledge’, let us turn once again to the West. As advocated by the Greek sage Socrates, the Greeks and Romans would say: `knowledge is conceptual’ and the modern Westerners are likely to contend that `knowledge is empirical’. Because the modernists are seemingly prone to avoiding `rational philosophy’ which is far from objective and its material womb `conceptual knowledge’.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">There is no denying the fact that, the Westerners are presently enamored in sciences. Science and the West have now become synonymous. The West has now found a brand newer life in ‘the potency of scientific technology wedded to political power.’ It has enkindled in the Western mind an indomitable ambition for global domination. Subjugation, imperialism, colonialism, new colonialism have become worn out conceptions like as conceptual knowledge and rationalism that stand clearly apart from the objectivity of scientific knowledge. So, in this intellectual firmament, knowledge and science have become pretty identical; so that, presently all thriving knowledge in the West are some branch of sciences. But, in the medieval times there was no science in the West. Westerners were either steeped in arts or ignorance.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">But those days are now gone. Science has given the West knowledge and power, so much so that, the Easterners have no way open before them except following the West in quest of knowledge, wealth and power, even if it amounts to running behind the horse.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Nevertheless, on purely intellectual grounds, it may be pin-pointed that the Western mental frame being bounded by the two categories of sense perception and thinking stance of conceptual knowledge within the limitation of human experience, the Westerners often fall into a fix in locating the real standing or objective stance of scientific knowledge. They habitually call it `empirical knowledge’ and explain it as “based on ‘experiment or experience’ rather than on ideas or theories. They further elucidate that empirical evidence, knowledge, research need to be tested empirically (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Oxford Dictionary</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">).</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The question at once arises as to what makes up the exact meaning of `empirically testing’; by what process: experientially or experimentally? Because, experimental testing would be objective and the experiential testing would be subjective; and in that case, the empirical testing would be combining both subjective and objective, which is logically absurd. It draws us to the same old question of Roger Bacon’s `inferential’ </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">versus</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> `experimental’ knowledge, wherein he wanted to discard the former and adopt the latter.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Mark you! In Roger’s scale </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">inferential</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> knowledge is subjective and </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">experimenta</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">l knowledge is objective; so that, he wanted to drop the subjective and adopt the objective methodology of knowledge. Could anybody analyze the root word of empiricism and prove that it yields objective knowledge? This seems to be a legitimate question of the East for proper understanding of the scientific mindset of the West.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Mind you! Whatever is conjugated with `ism’ is bound to be subjective; because it inevitably gets tagged with `opinion’ of some mind. `Experiment’ produces `evidence’ and neither experiment nor evidence can be conjugated with `ism’; because both are objective expressions.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">As a matter of fact, for the transformation of `conceptual’, including rational knowledge, into the knowledge of `reality’, the Muslims devised a new type of logic besides the Aristotelian inductive </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">cum</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> deductive logic of syllogism, and called it</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">`evidential logic’, in Arabic paradigm: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">`burhan’</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> as designated by the holy Quran: saying: `</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">haatu burhanakum in kuntum swadiqin</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">’- bring your evidence if you are truthful (Quran: al-Qasas 28: 42-45).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Mark that, `ism’ in ‘syllogism’ carries it over to the sphere of subjective opinion and mark that, scientific “theory” which is not `ism’, but Theo = God, ry = word, that is, the word of God, is </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ifso facto</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> objective and reflects closely 6230 </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ayat</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> or sentences of the holy Quran which are designated as ‘ the sign of Allah’ (= ayat) in the Islamic paradigm</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, which represent the objective truth .</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">To the Muslims, therefore, there are two types of sciences, one is the divine science of Allah’s creation, which is the `exact’ original divine science and the other is the human estimation of the divine creative technology underlying the material world that constitutes an `approximation’ of divine science. The words of the Quran as expounded by Quran itself are regarded by the Muslims as words of Allah. In the Quran, Allah is speaking through Prophet Muhammad (peace be on him), who is the medium of transmission and propagation of the divine truth.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Thus the Quran provides a bird’s eye view, a descriptive glance of the divine science of creation, where the author of the creation is speaking `what and how and why and for what’ He created this material world, which is, therefore, an exact science. It reflects the divine technology of creation.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">In order to estimate it with limited human capacity of knowing, the Muslims devised an `Evidential Logic’ vis-à-vis the Aristotelian syllogistic logic. It may be noted that Aristotelian syllogistic logic of major-minor-consequence begets theoretical knowledge rooted in imagination or analogy after the model of geometrical calculation. It fell much short of the exactitude of the Quranic evidential knowledge. So, in order to cope with the Quranic </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">burhan</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> or evidential objective knowledge, the Muslims devised a four-digital or quadruple process of definition called </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">hadd</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, to replace the syllogistic triadic, three digital process of definition. This is requisite for turning the imagination-based subjective perceptual as well as conceptual (as such also inferential, rational and </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">empirical</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">) knowledge into objective factual truth-based evidential knowledge of </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">burhan</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">As we have mentioned above, this was elicited from the third category of `reality’ in the fourfold classification of knowledge. This is a unique invention of Muslims apart from peoples of other countries, religions and civilizations of the East and the West.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The quadruple process of evidential logic of </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">hadd</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> devised by the early Muslim scientists were designated as: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">riwayat-dirayat-tajribah-ta’dil</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> which stand for (a) factual description of the collected materials (b) correct intellectual assessment of the data so described (c) experimental testing and examination of the data called </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">tajribah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> or experiment and (d) justifiable synthesized formulation or theorization of knowledge so gained.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">This </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">tajribah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> or experimental methodology of science, was developed in close collaboration with the parallel development of `information technology’ of sifting the genuine </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Hadith</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> or information narrated by the Companions and their followers from Prophet Muhammad (peace be on him) in the form of saying, teaching, instruction, prohibition, silent consent and description of his public and private behavior. The </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Hadith</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> sifting methodology was also quadruple digital process designated similarly by the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Muhaddithun</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">hadith</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> collectors as </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">riwayat-dirayat-jarah-ta’dil</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">- meaning: narration-intellection-testing examination and calculated judgment.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The keyword in the information technology of the Muhadditheen for sifting the narration emanating from the sayings of the holy Prophet Muhammad (peace be on him) is </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">jarah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> , which literally means ‘wounding’ or surgery for testing objectivity of the truth . It is comparable to the modern medical practice of blood testing for diagnosing disease. By this means the Muhadditheen determined the correctness of the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Hadith</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, the piece of information narrated from the Prophet by a continuous chain of narrators and thereto assigned </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ta’dil,</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> the just or rectified opinion or judgment of complete objectivity of the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">sahih</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> or correctness of the information. This is called </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ilm-ul-hadith</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, the science of prophetic tradition and different branches of it together as </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ulum-al-hadith</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, the sciences of hadith.</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Similarly, the keyword of the quadruple process of sifting the realistic traits of the material objects is </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">tajribah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, which literally means surveying, testing and technically</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">“ experiment”. It is principally applied to material objects and may be applied to animals and human beings only analogically with approximation and not with precision. Hence experimental sciences are precisely applied to material objects alone. Ibn Sina says that the real function of the logic lies on carrying a thinking person to </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">hadd</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> and </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">burhan</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, that is, to the evidential logic.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">To briefly elucidate the matter, it may be said that the physical urge of human being can be satisfied with two dimensional speculative logic which is designated as Arts, and mental urge is satisfied with three dimensional syllogistic rational logic, and realistic practical urge in satisfied by the four-dimensional logic comprising riwayat - dirayat - jarah / tajribah – ta’dil , that is to say , (a) collection and description of materials ( b ) intellectual analysis and computation of materials into data ( c ) experimentation through testing and examination in quest of objective reality ( d ) a well balanced formulated objective judgment through theorization.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Although in the fourfold category of knowledge the Muslims share equally with Aryan Hinduism and Buddhism, yet the far- reaching extension of the third category of realistic or intuitive knowledge into </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ulum at -tajribiyah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> or experimental sciences, was a novel invention of the Muslims, which neither the East nor the west had ever contemplated or thought of. In this innovative venture the Muslims were prompted by the Quranic spirit of </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">burhan</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> or evidential logic; so that, the measurement of </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">hadd</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> and </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">burhan</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, the evidential logic and upon its bases the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ulum at-tajribiyah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, the experimental sciences were a special gift of the holy Quran.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Westerners knew nothing about it during the classical and medieval ages. We have seen in our previous discussion on the Islamic cosmology that the effort of the Roger Bacon (1214-1292 A.D.) in the thirteenth century C.E. to introduce </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ulum-at-tajribiyah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> as </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">scientiae experimentalis</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> was sharply rejected by the Western clergy; so that, the word `science’ as a part of `science of God’ from the colloquial paradigm of English priesthood, which showed up for the first time in 1340 C.E. to mean merely the `sign of God’, was adopted by the scientists of the West as `experimental science’ in the middle of the nineteenth century C.E. though they began cultivating the Muslim sciences since.</span></span></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Sometimes earlier in the name of `natural philosophy’, in order to avoid the wrath of the clergy. We have, however, demonstrated that philosophy is a three dimensional syllogistic based knowledge whereas experimental science is four-dimensional burhan based knowledge, showing thereby that, still the Westerners do not grasp the spirit of experimental sciences. In order to place it in proper perspective, we have to pass on to our next discourse on the historical aspect of the transmission of experimental sciences from the East to the West, a succinct reference for that may be made to the writer’s book entitled “ The Origin and Development of Experimental Science”, published by the Bangladesh Institute of Islamic Thought, Dhaka, Bangladesh.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Conclusion:</span></span></b><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">We may sum up our arguments as follows<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Both science and religion are knowledge-based subjects. Both cover similar fields of activities pertaining to decision-making. But religion being pensively holistic proceeds from the wholeness of universal judgment to the partitive or particular human activities for proving its truth; whereas science as an experimental device, proceed from partitive experiment through generalization to the theoritical whole for establishing the truth of its findings.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Hence science and religion cannot be mutually identified or fused, but need be adjusted and balanced for the well being of human life.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><ol start="3" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">In the East, Hindus, Buddhist, and Muslims classify knowledge into four categories, such as, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">anubhiti jukti, satya and dibya</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">. These are again grouped together into two kinds, such as, exoteric and esoteric. But in the modern West knowledge is classified into two categories, such as, perceptual and conceptual and the Westerners are not acquainted with the remaining two higher categories of knowledge.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><ol start="4" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The two western categories of knowledge are equivalent to the first two categories of Eastern knowledge, which are designated in the East as </span></span><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">bidya</span></span></u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> or mere learning and not knowledge </span></span><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">per se</span></span></u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">. Hence the Western knowledge as compared to the Eastern strands as a halfway house of</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">knowledge.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><ol start="5" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The term empirical knowledge as applied to the experimental science turns out ambiguous between experiential and experimental as stated in the Western dictionaries. Empirical knowledge is called empiricism, whereas science cannot be conjugated with ism.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><ol start="6" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Experimental science was devised by the Muslims drawn from Quranic sources, which was borrowed by the West from the Muslims as evidenced by the researches of Roger Bacon, probably that is why, his role is being relegated to the background.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><ol start="7" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Learning produces arrogance and may lead to power consciousness, as the Westerners are prone to think; whereas knowledge, in the true sense, produces humbleness, as Socrates wanted to say; and humbleness produces wisdom. Wisdom is a western terminology, but it is not applied to the western knowledge, such as English wisdom, French wisdom, German wisdom etc. though it is widely applied to the East, such as, Oriental wisdom, Chinese wisdom, Indian wisdom etc.<o:p></o:p></span></span></li>
</ol><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[***The author is a Retired Senior Professor of Islamic History and Culture, Chittagong University, former first Director General, Islamic Foundation Bangladesh, Dhaka; ex-Vice Chancellor, Southern University Bangladesh, Chittagong and presently Research Scholar in Residence, Southern University, Chittagong.]</span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />
</span></span> </b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">source: </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">A. Farid and N. A. Khan (eds.) </span></span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2008. </span></span></b><i><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">21</span></span></b><sup><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">st</span></span></b></sup><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Century Challenges </span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-style: normal;"><i><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">For The Global Muslim Community</span></span></b></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, </span></span></span></i></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-style: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Renaissance Foundation for Human Resource Management. (RFHRM)</span></span></span></i></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; text-align: justify;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-style: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Dhaka</span></span></span></i></span></b></div></span></span></span></h1><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3080178902721588711.post-33034303416717448392010-02-14T07:05:00.000-08:002010-02-14T07:10:36.357-08:00The four laws of Rene Descartes method.<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBZ6_IiZxmPMskHxBChZvDXPijRnMZ2NZhbPK_r_PyWo4ULBsHBO9TfL8MlC9M8ux1Tp4drZ5699YsekS5D7c8oDTpMXhV8-E4gf_gnLeI8OdCar6OEWD2_7LcpwZnyjhwEnGD9n384RU/s1600-h/images.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBZ6_IiZxmPMskHxBChZvDXPijRnMZ2NZhbPK_r_PyWo4ULBsHBO9TfL8MlC9M8ux1Tp4drZ5699YsekS5D7c8oDTpMXhV8-E4gf_gnLeI8OdCar6OEWD2_7LcpwZnyjhwEnGD9n384RU/s320/images.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">fi</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">rst was never to accept anything as true that I did not </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">incontrovertibly </span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">know to be so; that is to say, carefully to avoid both </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">prejudice </span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">and premature conclusions; and to include nothing in my judgements other than that which presented itself to my mind so </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">clearly </span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">and </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">distinctly</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">, that I would have no occasion to doubt it.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The second was to divide all the di</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">ffi</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">culties under examination into as many parts as possible, and as many as were required to solve them in the best way.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The third was to conduct my thoughts in a given order, beginning with the </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">simplest </span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">and most easily understood objects, and gradually ascending, as it were step by step, to the<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">knowledge of the most </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">complex</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">; and </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">positing</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">* </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">an order even on those which do not have a natural order of precedence.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrFL57kmzhLyn-ClHk0acAeFwk8MdmXe7_UrxmKIie48-bXIpapnDo4leH3Q5n9svw0zsbEAGChxkkz9lvpzE9UbOuTgf2MKWOyMibbxpazprlbg5ORaK7GR7JA9wEvIQK3YH1NpF7H2Y/s1600-h/images+(1).jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrFL57kmzhLyn-ClHk0acAeFwk8MdmXe7_UrxmKIie48-bXIpapnDo4leH3Q5n9svw0zsbEAGChxkkz9lvpzE9UbOuTgf2MKWOyMibbxpazprlbg5ORaK7GR7JA9wEvIQK3YH1NpF7H2Y/s320/images+(1).jpg" /></span></a></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The last was to undertake such complete enumerations and such general surveys that I would be sure to have left nothing out.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Source: </span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">A DISCOURSE ON THE METHOD, part- two</span><o:p></o:p></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3080178902721588711.post-91638652399079097682010-02-05T08:19:00.003-08:002010-02-14T07:07:51.186-08:00What is Philosophy?<div class="MsoNormal"><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The term ‘Philosophy’ is deriver from the Greek word </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Philosophos</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">, which is a combination of two words, </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Philein</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> or </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Philos</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">, and </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Sophia.</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Philein</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> or </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Philos</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> literally means to love, to take interest in, or to be fond of, and Sophia means wisdom or perception. Philosophy, therefore, means love for wisdom and connotes the profound understanding that results from that love. The love for wisdom and knowledge manifests as efforts and endeavors that make full use of reason and intellect in order to understand the truth. The dictionary’s definition of the word is ‘seeking knowledge or wisdom’ especially that which deals with ‘ultimate Reality’ or ‘Truth’. According to another dictionary, Philosophy means ‘the search for knowledge and understanding of the true nature and meaning of the universe and of Human life.”</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0